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biodiversity > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Water-to-Land Transition

A

Fossils indicate that protostome lineages originated in the ocean

Like land plants and fungi,
protostomes made the transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments

This happened multiple times as they diversified
(ex: Whales hip bone serves no purpose but is evidence)

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2
Q

New adaptations needed water to land

A
  • Exchange gases
  • Avoid drying out
  • Hold up their bodies under their own weight (gravity)

Terrestrial protostomes have evolved many solutions to these challenges

Ex: Earthworms
- High surface area to volume ratio which ↑ efficiency in gas exchange

Ex: Arthropods and Mollusks (some)
- Gills inside body to minimize water loss
- Waxy layer to minimize water loss (insects) (prevent from drying out)

Ex: Insects, snails, and slugs
- Desiccation (drying out) resistant eggs (evolved repeatedly)

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3
Q

Missing from phyla?

A

lophophorates

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4
Q

Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

A

ventral nerve corde (nervous tissue)
Class Turbellaria (free-living flatworms)
Class Trematoda (Paraitic Flukes)
Class Cestoda (Parasitic Tapeworms)

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5
Q

Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) cont.

A

General Characteristics
- Triploblastic; bilateral symmetry
- Acoelomates
- Flattened, unsegmented body
- Found in marine and freshwater environments and land
- Lack circulatory system, Simple nervous system

Feeding
- incomplete digestive cavity, only one opening to digestive cavity
- Many are parasitic, other free living

Movement
- Varies (ciliated soft bodies, swimming ability)

Reproduction
- Most are hermaphroditic
- Undergo sexual reproduction
- Also have capacity for asexual regeneration

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6
Q

Class Trematoda: (a.k.a. flukes)

A

Life cycle specific to host
- live in gut and reproduce we release by poop and snail becomes next host

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7
Q

Class Cestoda: (a.k.a Tapeworms)

A
  • get from uncooked pork, Scolex (head) attaches to intestine, egg contaminated vegetation eaten by pig, infects muscle tissue and larvae form cysts

-Adult lives in gut and female lays eggs

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8
Q

Phylum Rotifera (rotifers)

A

General Characteristics
- Triploblastic; bilateral symmetry
- Unsegmented pseudocoelomates
- Highly developed internal organs
- Corona – “wheel animals”

Feeding
- Suspension feeders; Cilia on corona help sweep in
food particles

Movement
- A few sessile, most use the cilia on the corona to move

Reproduction
- Mostly sexual

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9
Q

The Lophophorates

A

Characterized by the unique
feeding structure the Lophophore. (This is what puts them in this phyla)

Phylum Bryozoa - Bryozoans
(common)

Phylum Brachiopoda -
brachiopods; once diverse

Phylum Phoronida - phoronid
worms

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10
Q

(T/F) All Lophotrochozoa are bilateral.

A

T

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11
Q

(T/F) Platyhelminthes refers to the flatworms.

A

T

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12
Q

(T/F) Class Cestoda falls into the phylum Lophophorates.

A

F

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13
Q

(T/F) Class Cestoda, Tubelleria, and Trematoda are considered deuterostomes.

A

F

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14
Q

(T/F) “Wheel” animals are found in the phylum Rotifera.

A

T

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15
Q

Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms)

A

General Characteristics
- Triploblastic; bilateral symmetry
- Coelomates
- Segmented body
- Found in marine and freshwater environments and land
Feeding
- Varies based on class
Movement
- Varies based on class
Reproduction
- Varies based on class

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16
Q

Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms) classes

A

Oligochaeta - earth worms
Polychaeta - marine worms
Hirudinea - leaches

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17
Q

Class Oligochaetes (earthworms)

A

-Clitellum found in all members (contains
reproductive structures)
- Coelom
- Head not well differentiated
- Few setae project from body wall (used
for locomotion movement)
- Hermaphroditic but cross-fertilize
- Clitellum secretes mucus cocoon

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18
Q

Earthworms good and bad

A

Good for: gardens allows soil to become high quality

Bad for: woods already have it, too much quality.

Kind of an ecosystem service

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19
Q

Class Polychaeta (bristle worms)

A
  • Chitinous setae called parapodia.
  • Complete digestive system.
  • Respiration through skin, gills or parapodia.
  • No clitellium
  • Mostly sexual reproduction
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20
Q

Tube worms

A
  • larger animal species thriving in

Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria synthesize organic compounds used by worm

Found near hydrothermal vents

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21
Q

Class Hirudinea “Leeches”

A

Occur mostly in freshwater
Usually flattened

Hermaphroditic and cross-fertilization

Clitellum develops only during breeding season

Coelom reduced, not divided into segments

Suckers at both ends of body

No setae (except for one species)

Some eat detritus, others suck blood

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22
Q

Determine whether the description is referring to Oligochaetes (O), Polychaetes (P), Hirudinea (H) or all Annelids (A)

Hermaphroditic; have a clitellium which houses the reproductive structures

A

O,H

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23
Q

Determine whether the description is referring to Oligochaetes (O), Polychaetes (P), Hirudinea (H) or all Annelids (A)

Multicellular, true coelom, bilateral, triploblasts

A

A

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24
Q

Determine whether the description is referring to Oligochaetes (O), Polychaetes (P), Hirudinea (H) or all Annelids (A)

Complete digestive system; parapodia; examples include marine worms such as
Tube worms that live in deep sea hydrothermal vents.

A

P

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25
Q

Determine whether the description is referring to Oligochaetes (O), Polychaetes (P), Hirudinea (H) or all Annelids (A)

Determinante cell fate, spiral cleavage

A

A

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26
Q

Determine whether the description is referring to Oligochaetes (O), Polychaetes (P), Hirudinea (H) or all Annelids (A)

Example includes earthworms

A

O

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27
Q

Determine whether the description is referring to Oligochaetes (O), Polychaetes (P), Hirudinea (H) or all Annelids (A)

Class that fall into the phylum Annelida

A

A

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28
Q

Phylum Mollusca (Molluscs)

A

General Characteristics
- Triploblastic; bilateral symmetry
- Coelomates
- Visceral mass: region containing the main organs
- Mantle: a cavity that forms around the visceral mass
- Found in marine and freshwater environments and land

Feeding
- Varies based on class
- Radula (specilized feeding structure)

Movement
- Foot: muscle used for movement
- Varies based on class

Reproduction
- Most mollusks are gonochoric (individuals are either male or female)
- A few are hermaphroditic
- Some oysters change sex
- Most engage in external fertilization
- Gastropods have internal fertilization

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29
Q

Class Gastropoda (phylum mollusca)

A

“Stomach footed”

have a large muscular foot on their

ventral side and many lack shells

A primarily marine group – some freshwater, and only terrestrial mollusks

Most have a single shell - some lost it

Heads typically have pairs of tentacles with eyes

1 shell or no shell

Feeding structure, Radula

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30
Q

Class Polyplacophora (Chitons) (phylum moll)

A

Marine mollusks that have oval bodies

8 overlapping dorsal calcium carbonate plates

Body is not segmented under the plates

Most chitons are grazing herbivores

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31
Q

Class Bivalvia

A

Most marine, some
freshwater

No radula or distinct head

Have 2 shells (valves)
hinged together

Water enters through
inhalant siphon and exits
through exhalant siphon

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32
Q

Value of Oyster Habitat

A

come back to

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33
Q

Invasive Zebra Mussel

A

Problem in great lakes

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34
Q

Class Cephalopoda

A

-most advanced and intelligent

  • well-developed head and a foot that is modified to
    form long, muscular tentacles.
  • large brains and eyes with sophisticated lenses.
  • More than 700 strictly marine species
  • Active marine predators
  • Only mollusk with closed circulatory system
  • Foot has evolved into a series of arms equipped
    with suction cups
  • Beak-like jaws, toxic saliva
  • Largest relative brain sizes among invertebrates
  • Highly developed nervous system
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35
Q

The siphon and the skin

A

Living cephalopods lack
external shell

Except chambered nautilus
Squid and cuttlefish have
internal shells

Jet propulsion using siphon (movement)

Ink can be ejected from siphon (disorient the predators)

Chromatophores allow for
changing skin color for
camouflage or communication

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36
Q

Jet propulsion

A

Cavity enclosed by mantle fills with water

Water is forced out through siphon; animal moves backwards

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37
Q

Gastropods descriptions

A

“Stomach-footed”; only terrestrial mollusks, internal fertilization

Includes slugs

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38
Q

Bivalves description

A

Includes oysters, clams, scallops

Comprised of 2 shells; filter feed

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39
Q

Cephalopods description

A

Highly developed nervous system, closed circulatory system, well developed head.

Includes squid, octopus, cuttlefish and chambered nautilus

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40
Q

Mollusks description

A

Gonochoric (for the most part)

Has a “foot”, visceral mass, and mantle

Has at least one representative with a shell

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41
Q

Phylum Porifera

A

General Characteristics
- Prediploblasts- partially differentiated tissues (including
choanocytes), but no true tissues.
- Asymmetrical
- Found in both marine and freshwater environments.

Feeding
- Suspension Feeders – they feed by removing organic material
from the water column
- Some house photosynthetic symbionts

Movement
- Most adults are sessile

Reproduction
- Asexual and sexual (often with internal fertilization)
- Larvae disperses in water column

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42
Q

Feeding

A

Spicules
● Provide structural support
● Can be used to distinguish
between different type of sponges

Choanocyte
● Trap food particles
● Same structure in
Choanoflagellates

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43
Q

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

A

go back to

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44
Q

Benefits of Sponges

A

Filtration Capacity
- “Sponges can remove up to 95% of
bacteria and particles from the water
(POM) and 90% of dissolved organic
carbon (DOC), thereby converting
suspended particles and dissolved
matter into food for other animals.”

Medicinal Properties
- “ A remarkable diversity of bioactive
compounds, including some anti-cancer
and anti-malarial compounds, have
been found in sponges” (likely from
symbionts)

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45
Q

Phylum Cnidaria

A

General Characteristics
- Diploblastic; radial symmetry
- Found in both marine and freshwater environments.
- Polyp (sessile form) and medusa forms (planktonic form)
- Found in marine and freshwater environments

Feeding
- Predatory, most have tentacles with stinging cells called cnidocytes
- Extracellular and incomplete digestion

Movement
- Both polyps and medusae can move via contractions of muscle-like
cells

Reproduction
- Asexual (typical of polyps) and sexual (some polyps and medusae)
- Typically external fertilization

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46
Q

nematocyst

A

come back

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47
Q

jelly fish

A

extracellular digestion, where enzymes
break down the food particles and cells
lining the gastrovascular cavity absorb
the nutrients.
- incomplete digestive system with only
one opening; serves as both a mouth
and an anus.
- nervous system (nerve cells scattered
around body) responsible for tentacle
movement, drawing of captured prey to
the mouth, digestion of food, and
expulsion of waste

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48
Q

Reproduction

A

come back

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49
Q

Class: Anthozoa

A
  • Sea anemones, most corals,
    sea fans
  • Solitary and colonial polyps
  • Hollow tentacles
  • Symbiotic dinoflagellates
    (zooxanthellae)
    photosynthesize and provide
    nutrients to reef coral
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50
Q

(T/F) Class Anthozoa includes corals and sea anemones.

A

T

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51
Q

(T/F) Ocean acidification occurs when excess CO2 dissolves into ocean water
forming carbonic acid that ultimately lowers the pH of the surrounding
environment.

A

T

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51
Q

(T/F) Many corals house heterotrophic dinoflagellate symbionts.

A

F

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52
Q

(T/F),Rising ocean temperatures cause coral to expel their photosynthetic
symbionts.

A

T

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53
Q

(T/F) Coral bleaching is not a serious threat to ocean ecosystems.

A

F

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54
Q

Class Cubozoa

A
  • Box jellies
  • Strong swimmers, voracious fish predators
  • Stings may be fatal to humans
  • Neurotoxins that can cause severe respiratory
    distress
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55
Q

Class Hydrozoa

A

Man of War Colony
Instead of growing larger, the embryo sprouts new
bodies, which take on different functions.

  • Hydroids, Hydra, Portuguese man-of-war
  • Both polyp and medusa stages
  • Only class with freshwater members
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56
Q

The Immortal Jellyfish

A

Transdifferentiation: adult cell becomes an
entirely different kind of cell. Instead of
expiring, they reconstitute themselves as
juveniles and the life cycle over again

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57
Q

Class Scyphozoa

A

“True Jellyfish”
Medusa more conspicuous and complex
Ring of muscle cells allows for rhythmic
contractions for propulsion

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58
Q

Class Staurozoa

A

Star jellies
Resembles a medusa in most ways but is
attached to the substratum by a sort of stalk
that emerges from the side opposite the mouth

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59
Q

Phylum Ctenophora

A

General Characteristics
- Diploblastic; radial symmetry
- Marine only
- Mostly medusa forms (planktonic form)
- No cnidocytes
- Some are bioluminescent

Feeding
- Predatory, most have tentacles (sticky cells that capture prey)

Movement
- Many of cilia used for movement

Reproduction
- Most are hermaphrodites and can self fertilize
- Typically external fertilization

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60
Q

Sponges characteristics

A

Often have internal fertilization
Have choanocytes
Suspension feeders

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61
Q

Cnidarians characteristics

A

Cnidocytes that house nematocysts
Radial symmetry
Diploblast

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62
Q

Ctenophores characteristics

A

Radial symmetry
Have cilia
Diploblast

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63
Q

The Ecdysozoa include

A
  • Arthropoda (Insects, Arachnids, Crustaceans,
    etc.)
  • Nematoda (“roundworms”),
  • Tardigrades & Onychophora

The latest definition was proposed in 1997, based
mainly on trees constructed using 18S ribosomal
RNA genes.

Characteristics:
- All members shed their exoskeleton (ecdysis).
- The exoskeleton is a three-layered cuticle
composed of organic material, which is
periodically molted as the animal grows

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64
Q

Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)

A

General Characteristics
- Triploblastic; bilateral symmetry
- Psuedocoelomates
- unsegmented body
- Found in marine and freshwater environments and land

Feeding
- Most are free living, some parasitic

Movement
- Undulating motion

Reproduction
- Sexual, some are hermaphroditic, internal fertilization

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65
Q

Nematoda As Parasites

A

come bacl

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66
Q

Trichinosis

A

come back

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67
Q

Phylum Tardigrades

A

Water bears
- Microscopic animal, segmented body, eight shirt legs, hemocoel, flexible cuticle must be molted during growth

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68
Q

Hemocoel

A

Body cavity containing circulatory fluids

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69
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

A type of asexual reproduction

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70
Q

Tardigrades in extreme enviorments

A

can survive extreme enviormental conditions
- Temps low as -200 and high as 151
- freezing/thawing
- salinity changes
- lack of oxygen/water
- X-ray radiations
- noxious chemicals
- boiling alcohol
- low and high pressure

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71
Q

Phylum Onychophora

A

Velvet worms
- Caterpillar like with dry, segmented bodies, lobe shaped appendages, hemocoel and regularly molt a thin cuticle

72
Q

(T/F) All ecdysozoans shed their exoskeleton.

A

T

73
Q

(T/F) Nematodes are the most diverse Ecdysozoan

A

F

74
Q

(T/F) Nematodes are sometimes called velvet worms

A

F

75
Q

(T/F) Tardigrades are phyla that include individuals that can withstand dramatic
changes in environmental conditions

A

T

76
Q

(T/F) Trichinosis is caused by a parasitic worm found in the phylum Onychophora.

A

F

77
Q

Phylum Arthropoda (arthropods)

A

General Characteristics
- Triploblastic; bilateral symmetry
- coelomates
- segmented body
- Exoskeleton
- Found in marine and freshwater environments and land

Feeding
- Varies depending on class; many specialized mouth parts

Movement
- Jointed appendages for running, swimming, walking, most have wings

Reproduction
- Usually sexual; usually internal fertilization
- Metamorphosis in some species

78
Q

4subphyla of arthropods

A

Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Crustacea, Hexapoda

79
Q

Arthropod Body Plan

A

Segmentation
Body organized into regions or tagmata
(singular = tagma)

Insects
Head + Thorax + Abdomen
Arachnids and Crustaceans/
Cephalothorax + Abdomen

Body plan controlled by HOX genes

80
Q

Arthropod Body Plan: Exoskeleton and Jointed Appendages

A

Exoskeleton
-Made of chitin and protein
- Protects against water loss
- Must undergo ecdysis – molting

Jointed Appendages
- Organized in pairs, one pair per segment
- May be modified into antennae, mouthparts, and wing
- Many functions:
- Exchanging gases
- Sensing the environment
- Feeding
- Reproduction
- And locomotion

81
Q

characteristics that distinguish crustaceans from insects

A

Nature of appendages, Antennae. Chewing appendages, respiration

82
Q

Arthropod Eyes

A

Compound eyes are found in many arthropods – very sensitive to motion

Composed of independent visual units called ommatidia

Other arthropods have simple eyes

May be in addition to compound eyes

Have single lenses

Distinguish light from darkness

83
Q

Subphylum: Myriapod

A

Head regions followed by numerous segments

Young add segments as they grow

Gonochoric, internal fertilization, lay eggs

Young add segments as they grow

Centipede
Most body segments have 1
pair of appendages

Millipede
Most body segments have 2
pair of appendages

84
Q

Subphylum: Trilobita

A

extinct

85
Q

Subphylum Chelicerata

A

Spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions, daddy long-legs,
horseshoe crabs, sea spiders

Most anterior appendages called chelicerae

May function as fangs or pincers

Body divided into 2 tagmata (segments)

Anterior cephalothorax bearing all appendages

Pedipalps (right behind the chelicerae; various functions) and 4 pairs of walking legs

Posterior abdomen contains reproductive organ

No antennae

Types of chelicerae:
jackknife (in green),
scissor (in blue) and 3-
segmented chelate
(in red

86
Q

Araneae (spiders)

A

About 35,000 species
Particularly important as predators

Many spiders catch their prey in silk webs

Silk protein forced out of spinnerets found on the posterior of the abdomen

Other spiders actively hunt their prey

All spiders have poison glands with channels through their chelicerae

87
Q

Acari (mites and ticks)

A

Most diverse of the chelicerates

Predators and parasites

Most mites are small

Ticks are larger

Blood-suckers

Can carry many diseases
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Lyme disease

88
Q

Lyme Disease

A

Caused by a bacteria
Ticks are vector

89
Q

Xiphosura

A

(horseshoe crabs)

90
Q

Subphylum Crustacea

A

Largely marine, some freshwater

Most have three tagmata
2 pairs of antennae, 3 pairs of appendages for chewing, and various pairs of legs\

Gas exchange through gills or across cuticle

38000-55000+ species

All crustaceans but barnacles are gonochoric

Many kinds of copulation mechanisms

Several stages before maturity

91
Q

Malacostraca (Shrimps, lobsters, crabs, and crayfish)

A

Have 10 feet – 5 pairs of thoracic appendages

Exoskeleton usually enforced with CaCO3

Cephalothorax covered by carapace

Crab has small abdomen held under carapace

92
Q

Subphylum Crustacea

A

Class:
- Branchipoda (brine shrimp)
- Copepoda (indicator species)
- Thecostraca (Barnacles)
- Cephalocarida
- Ostracoda

93
Q

Subphylum Hexapoda

A

The most distinctive feature of the hexapods is the reduction in walking appendages to six (in
contrast to other arthropods, most of which
have more than three pairs of legs)

Three body segments are effectively fused to
form the thorax.

The majority of hexapoda are insects, many of which have wings as adults.

More than half of all named animal species

Approximately one billion billions (10x18) insects are alive at any one time

94
Q

External Features Hexa

A

come back

95
Q

How did wings evolve?

A

We aren’t entirely sure!

We do know
- They occur as unjointed
extensions from the cuticle on the 2nd or 3rd segment of the thorax

  • They have been lost and
    modified many times
96
Q

Insect Development

A

Metamorphosis is the change from juvenile to adult body type.

Holometabolous (complete)
metamorphosis is a two-step process, from larva to pupa to adult, involving dramatic changes in morphology and habitat use.

Hemimetabolous (incomplete)metamorphosis refers to the limited morphological difference between juvenile and adult. It is a one-step process of sexual maturation.

97
Q

(T/F) Holometabolous insects undergo complete metamorphosis.

A

T

98
Q

(T/F) Hexapods have 2 appendages

A

F

99
Q

(T/F) Millipedes have one pair of appendages per body segment

A

F

100
Q

(T/F) Arthropods differ in the arrangement of their tagmata.

A

T

101
Q

Recall!! Protostomes and Deuterostomes differ in

A

four embryonic events:
1. Cleavage – pattern of cell division

  1. Developmental fate of cells
  2. Gastrulation – beginning of the “gut”
  3. Coelom formation
102
Q

Phylum Echinodermata

A

● 5 Major classes
● Pentaradial symmetry
common in extant
(surviving) groups.
● Complete digestive
system
● Endoskeleton
● Gonochoric
● External fertilization
● Water vascular
system.

103
Q

Phylum: Echinodermata details

A

General Characteristics
- Triploblastic; pentaradial symmetry
- coelomates
- Endoskeleton of calcium carbonate
- Found in marine environments

Feeding
- Complete digestive system
- Very important consumers

Movement
- Water vascular system with tube feet

Reproduction
- Mostly sexual, internal fertilization

104
Q

Origin of Echinoderms

A

Origin remains unclear
Thought to have evolved
from bilaterally symmetrical
ancestors because larvae
are bilaterally symmetrical

105
Q

Echinoderm symmetry

A
  • Primary bilateral
    • Larval form
      -Some adult form

Secondary Pentaradial
- 5 radical divisons of major organ systems (arm, Madreporite, Anus, Central disc)

106
Q

Endoskeleton

A
  • Internal skeleton found within tissues
  • Consists of plates (called
    ossicles) and spines
  • Always covered by a thin layer
    of tissue
107
Q

Water Vascular System

A

⭐The ampullae
and tube feet
together are called
the podia.
cont.

108
Q

Regeneration and sexual reproduction

A

Many able to regenerate lost parts

Some reproduce asexually by splitting

Most reproduction is sexual

Gonochoric

Gametes released into water

Free-swimming larvae

Each class has a characteristic type of larva

109
Q

Class Asteroidea

A
  • Includes sea stars
  • Most have 5 arms- some have multiples of 5
  • Very important predators in marine ecosystems
110
Q

Starfish and goo

A

-Bacteria that thrive in low O2 environments are present in sick sea
stars.
- These bacteria don’t necessarily cause disease but they steal the oxygen around the sea star
- With low O2 sea stars can’t “breath”
- They die

  • Increase growth in bacteria due to increases in water temp.
  • When sick sea stars die this also depletes surrounding water of O2
    (because decomposition uses O2→
    POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
111
Q

(T/F) Echinoderms are protostomes

A

F

112
Q

(T/F) Echinoderms have pentaradial symmetry as adults

A

T

113
Q

(T/F) Echinoderms have an incomplete digestive system

A

F

114
Q

(T/F) Echinoderms engage in internal fertilization

A

F

115
Q

Purple sea star as keystone

A

A species of sea snail popped up that wasn’t present in the original food web.

116
Q

Phylum: Chordata

A

General Characteristics
- Pharyngeal gill slits: openings into the throat or pouches in the throat. (Become modified for
gas exchange, jaw support, and/or hearing)
- Notochord: A supportive but flexible rod that runs the length of the body. (This is the
precursor to the backbone in vertebrates)
- Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
- Tail, extending past the anus

Feeding
- Complete digestive system
- Very important consumers

Movement
- Varies

Reproduction
- Mostly sexual, internal fertilization

117
Q

Three Subphyla of chordata

A

Vertebrates (biggest one)

Urochordata and Cephalochordata (no backbone) and are chordates but NOT vertabrates

118
Q

Subphlyum: Urochordata

A

Tunicates and salps are marine animals

Larvae are tadpolelike and have notochord and nerve cord (Are free-swimming but do not feed)

Adults typically lose the tail and notochord (Are immobile filter-feeders)

Many secrete a tunic (cellulose sac) that surrounds the animal

119
Q

Subphylum: Cephalochordata

A

Lancelets are scaleless chordates

Notochord persists throughout animal’s life

Spend most of their time partly buried

Have no distinguishable head

Feed on plankton using cilia-generated currents

Closest relatives to vertebrates

120
Q

Subphylum: Vertebrata

A

● Dorsal hollow nerve cord = spinal cord

● Pharyngeal pouches are present
in all chordate embryos
○ In fishes and some amphibians these
develop into gills
○ In terrestrial animals these pouches are often a vestigial trait

● Tail occurs in all embryos but may be vestigial in certain species

● Notochord key to the
development of the body plan and organ development

121
Q

The vertebrates are a monophyletic group distinguished by two synapomorphies

A

(characteristic shared among most groups):
A cranium—a bony,
cartilaginous, or fibrous
case that encloses the brain
(Important because it
protects the brain and
sensory organs)

A column of cartilaginous or
bony structures called
vertebrae, which form along
the dorsal side of most
species (Important because it protects the spinal cord)

Protection of the central nervous system and key sensory structures

122
Q

Vertebrates have complex brains

A

Forebrain
Senses smell

Hindbrain
Balance and (in
some species), hearing

Midbrain
Vision

All living vertebrates have the three brain regions, but the structure and functions of the regions have evolved over time

123
Q

Vertebrate Diversity

A

Three general themes of vertebrate evolution:
1. Most vertebrates are extinct

  1. Some traits evolved more than once
    a. Ex: flight evolved independently in pterosaurs, birds, and bats
  2. Traits are sometimes lost
    a. Ex: snakes are limbless but are descendant
    from limed lizards

Evolution is not a progression from simple to
complex and is not limited to addition of new traits

124
Q

History of Vertebrates

A

The first vertebrates appeared in the oceans about 545 MYA

Mouth at one end, fin at the other

Jawed fishes soon became dominant

Amphibians invaded the land

Reptiles replaced them as the dominant land vertebrates

Birds and mammals became
dominant after Cretaceous mass extinction

125
Q

General Characteristics of Fishes

A
  • Vertebral column (except for
    hagfish)
  • Jaws and paired appendages
    (except for hagfish and lamprey)
  • Gills
126
Q

General Characteristics of Fishes Cont.

A

Single circulation- blood
flows once through the
heart

Double Circulation- blood
flows through the heart
twice

utritional deficiencies
–Inability to synthesize
aromatic amino acids has
been inherited by all their
vertebrate descendants

There’s a lot of tryptophan in Turkey…just saying :)

127
Q

Major Classes of Fishes and Fish Evolution

A

(come back)
Placodermi
(armored fish)
Extinct
Cephalaspidomorphi
(lampreys) & Myxini
(Hagfish)
Mostly Extinct
Chondrichthyes
(cartilaginous fish)
Sarcopterygii
Mostly Extinct
Acanthodii &
Ostracoderms
Extinct
Actinopterygii

128
Q

Cephalaspidomorphi (lampreys) & Myxini (Hagfish)

A

Mostly extinct
Lack paired appendages
No scales.
Skeletons are composed
entirely of cartilage

129
Q

The Gill-Arch Hypothesis for the Origin of the Jaw

A
  • Natural selection acted on developmental regulatory
    genes that determine gill arch (curved regions of
    tissue between the gills) morphology
  • Mutation and natural selection increased the size of
    the most anterior arch and modified its orientation
    slightly, producing the first working jaw
    Evidence to support this theory:
    1. Gill arches and jaws are made of cartilaginous
    tissue that hinge and bend
    2. Same developmental cells give rise to the muscles
    that move gill arches and jaws
    3. Expression of developmental regulatory genes
    (HOX) are similar in jaws and gill arches
130
Q

Class Chondrichthyes

A

Sharks, skates, rays
Became the dominant sea
predators in the Carboniferous
period (360–280 MYA)
Cartilage skeleton “calcified”
with granules of calcium
carbonate
Light, strong skeleton
Skin is covered in sand-paper
like placoid scales

131
Q

Chondrichthyes Teeth, Sensory, and reproduction

A

Teeth
Among the first vertebrates to develop teeth; Evolved from rough scales
Easily lost but continuously
replaced

Sensory Abilities
A series of sensory organs under the skin that
detect changes in pressure
Ampullae of Lorenzini- detects electrical field
produced by prey

Reproduction
Eggs are fertilized internally
Most pups are born alive (a few species
do lay fertilized eggs)
Sharks have long gestation periods and
relatively few offspring (not able to
recover quickly from population declines)

132
Q

Two Major Classes of Bony Fish
(Osteichthyes)

A

Actinopterygii (Ray-Finned)
● 26,000 named species = largest and most
diverse group of fishes
● Parallel bony rays support and stiffen
each fin
● All the fish you eat

Sarcopterygii (Lobed-Finned)
● Lobe-finned
● Presence of rod-shaped bones
● Fins are fleshy
● Mostly extinct
● Example: Coelacanth (endangered)
● Almost certain they are the ancestors of
amphibians
Actinopterygii (Ray-Finned)
● 26,000 named species = largest and most
diverse group of fishes
● Parallel bony rays support and stiffen
each fin
● All the fish you eat

133
Q

Important Adaptations: Operculum

A

Hard plate that pushes water over
the gills
⭐Sharks don’t have this which is why
most of them have to continue moving to
get water to pass their water gills. Also-
this is why shark nets are so bad :(

134
Q

Important Adaptations: Swim Bladder

A

Gas-filled sac that allows bony fishes to regulate their buoyant density

135
Q

Tiktaalik

A

In 2006, a transitional fossil was found between fish and
amphibians
Had gills and scales like a fish, but a neck like an amphibian
Shoulder, forearm, and wrist bones were like those of amphibians,
but at the end of the limb was a lobed fin, rather than the toes of
an amphibian

136
Q

Unique Characteristics of Class Amphibia

A
  1. Legs – adaptation to life on land
  2. Lungs
  3. Pulmonary veins – separate pulmonary circuit
    allows higher pressure blood to tissues
  4. Partially divided heart – improves separation of
    pulmonary and systemic circuits
  5. Cutaneous respiration – supplement lungs
137
Q

“Double-Life”

A

Most, but not all,
amphibians do
this

138
Q

Geological time scale

A

-Over 10,000 species

All living exhibit three features:
- Amnionic eggs that are watertight

-Dry skin covers the body
and prevents water loss

-Thoracic breathing increases lung capacity

139
Q

Amnionic eggs

A

We have them too, but not the shell
Reptiles - exploit habitats that amphibians cant

140
Q

Skull openings

A

Based on number of temporal openings (fenestra)
- Jaw muscle attachment
Anapsid: no temporal
- turtles
Synapsid: One temporal opening
- Mammals
Diapsid: two temporal openings
- reptiles including birds

141
Q

Phylogenic Tree of reptiles

A

Large reptile that can kill beasts their own size - pelycosaurs

First land vertebrates
to be bipedal Gave rise to crocodiles, pterosaurs,
dinosaurs, and birds-Archosaurs

In-between mammal like - therapsids

142
Q

Dinosaurs

A
  • dominated for over 150 million years
  • Extinct 65 MYA
  • except bird decedents
  • Asteroid impact
143
Q

Modern Reptiles

A

Developed two characteristics

  1. internal Fertilization
    - Sperm fertilizes egg before protective membranes are formed
  2. Improved circulation
    - Oxygen is provided to body more efficiently
    - Septum in heart extended to create partial wall
    - Crocodiles, birds, and mammals have completely divided 4-chambered heart
144
Q

Reptiles are Ectotherms

A

Do not use internally generated heat to regulate body temperature
Bask in sun, seek shade and other behaviors to keep body temp at appropriate level
limits habitat choice and energy
if too cold energy lowers

145
Q

Order: Rynchocephalia

A

Tuatara
- only surviving member of order
- Endemic to New Zealand

146
Q

Order: Chelonia

A

Turtle and tortoise
- Thoracic vertabre and ribs built in shell
- Shell has two layers
Inner of bone, outer of keratin
New keratin deposited under old as turtle ages
Differences:
Tor land, boxy shell, flat feet,
Turt water mostly. flat shell fins

147
Q

Order: Squamata

A

Lizards
- Limbs se at rigt angles

Snake
- No limbs
- Scaly skin that sheds
periodically

Snake evolved from lizards because vestigial hind bone

148
Q

Order: Crocodylia

A

Largest reptiles
Four-chambered heart
Closest living relatives to birds
Alligators- more pointy snout

149
Q

Class: Aves

A

Birds are most diverse of all terrestrial vertebrates
More than 10,000 species
Success lies in evolutionary novelties
- Feathers: Modified Scales of keratin (developed from reptiles scale)
Provide lift for flight and conserve heat

  • Skeleton: Bones thin and hollow, Many are fused for rigidity anchor strong flight muscles, breastbone provides attachment site for flight muscles
  • Physiological Mechanisms
    1. Efficient respiration
    a. Air passes all the way through lungs in a single
    direction
  1. Efficient circulation
    a. 4-chambered heart so muscles receive fully
    oxygenated blood
    b. Rapid heartbeat
    c. Double looped circulation
  2. Endothermy
    a. Body temperature (40–42C) permits higher metabolic
    rate
    b. Permit metabolism in flight muscles to proceed
    rapidly
150
Q

Endothermy

A

Only seen in birds and mammals
Achieved by high basal metabolic rate and heat conservation methods (fur, feathers)
Advantages- external temperature does not affect performance
allows to live in cool places
muscles can provide sustained power
Disadvantages- energy expensive ( an endotherm will have to eat much more than an ectotherm of equal size)

151
Q

Birds are descendent from theropods

A

Sinosairopteryx
- short arms, filaments that may have been used for insulation.
Velociraptor
- swiveling wrist bones
Caudipteyx
- covered with primitive (symmetrical and therefore flightless) feathers.
Arcaeopteryx
- Asymmetrical feathers could probably fly short distances

152
Q

Archaeopteryx

A

First known bird
Skull with teeth, long reptilian tail
Feathers on wings and tails
Forelimbs nearly identical to those of theropods
Feather prob evolved for insulation

153
Q

Birds have interesting behaviors

A

watch a video will be on test

154
Q

Reptile characteristics

A

Chordate animals with amniotic eggs
Ectothermic
4 chambered heart
Internal fertilization

155
Q

Aves characteristics

A

Chordate animals with amniotic eggs.
Representative species have a diapsid skull.
Endothermic
Hollow bones
4 chambered heart
Internal fertilization

156
Q

True or False Turtles have diapsid skulls

A

F

157
Q

True or False The amniotic egg prevents desiccation

A

T

158
Q

True or False Squamata include turtles and alligators

A

F

159
Q

True or False Reptiles are endotherms.

A

F

160
Q

True or False Reptiles have a four chambered heart.

A

T

161
Q

True or False Reptiles engage in external fertilization

A

F

162
Q

True or False Turtle shells are comprised of the protein keratin

A

T

163
Q

Chordate Subphyla

A

Mammals have been around since the time
of the dinosaurs, about 220 MYA
Tiny, shrewlike, insect-eating, tree-dwelling
creatures
May have been nocturnal – large eye
sockets
Mammals reached their maximum diversity in
the Tertiary period (65–2 MYA)
After mass extinction of dinosaurs
Decline in the total number of mammalian
species over last 15 million years
Lowest number among 5 vertebrate classes
Almost 4,000 species are rodents, bats,
shrews, or moles

164
Q

2 Distinct Mammalian Traits

A

Hair
- Long, keratin-rich filaments that extend from hair follicles
- Insulation, camouflage, sensory structure

Mammary glands
- Females possess mammary glands that secrete milk

My quills are
modified
hairs!

165
Q

Other Notable Mammalian Adaptations

A

Endothermic (depends
on higher metabolic rate)

4-chambered heart

Respiration using diaphragm

Placenta in most mammals
(Specialized organ that provides O2 and nutrients to fetus and removes waste products)

166
Q

Mammalian Adaptations: Teeth

A

Specialized teeth

Different types of teeth are highly specialized to match particular eating habits

Contrast carnivore teeth to herbivore teeth

167
Q

Mammalian Adaptations: Digestion

A

Herbivores

Herbivorous mammals rely on mutualistic partnerships with bacteria for cellulose breakdown

Ruminants have a 4 chambered stomach to increase area for these
bacteria

168
Q

Mammalian Adaptations: Flight

A

Only in Bats

Only mammals capable of powered flight

Wing is a leathery membrane of skin and muscle stretched over 4 finger bones

Navigate in the dark by echolocation

169
Q

Prototheria and Theria

A

Prototheria
- Most primitive
- Lay shelled eggs
- Only living group are the monotremes

Theria
- Viviparous (give birth to live young
- Includes marsupials and
placental mammals

170
Q

Marsupials and Monotremes

A

Monotremes
Lay shelled eggs

Like reptiles have
single opening
(cloaca) for feces,
urine, and reproduction

Lack well-developed nipples

Only three living species:
Duck-billed platypus
(Australia)
2 echidna species
(Australia & New
Guinea

Marsupials
Major difference is pattern of embryonic development

  • Short-lived placenta
  • After birth, young crawls into marsupial pouch, latches onto nipple, and continues to develop
171
Q

Placental Mammals

A

Produce a true
placenta that
nourishes embryo
throughout its
development

Forms from both fetal
and maternal tissues

Young undergo a
considerable period of
development before
they are born

172
Q

The evolution of primates

A

Primates are the mammals that gave rise to our own
species

Evolved two features that allowed them to succeed in an arboreal environment

  1. Grasping fingers and
    toes (First digit (thumb)
    is opposable in many)
  2. Binocular vision (Eyes
    are shifted toward the
    front of the face; Lets
    brain judge distances
    precisely)
173
Q
A
174
Q

Old vs. New World Monkeys

A

Old world monkeys refers to species found in Asia, Europe, and Africa which were continents known to the Europeans before the Americas. New world monkeys are predominantly
found in the Americas.

175
Q

Prosimians and Anthropoids

A

Prosimians

Lemurs, lorises and tarsiers

Large eyes with increased visual acuity

Most are nocturnal

Anthropoids

Include monkeys, apes, and humans

Almost all diurnal

Changes in eye design include color vision

Expanded brain

Live in groups with complex social interactions

Care for young for extended period

Long period of learning and brain development

176
Q

Apes vs. Humans

A

The common ancestor of apes and hominids is thought to have been an
arboreal climber

Hominids became bipedal, walking upright

Apes evolved knuckle-walking

Differences related to bipedal locomotion

Human vertebral column is more curved

Spinal cord exits from bottom of skull

Humans carry much of the body’s weight on the lower limbs

177
Q

Lactose Tolerance in Humans

A
  • After weaning, babies lose the ability to produce
    lactase
  • When dairy farming in Europe first developed
    many people were lactose intolerant
  • Eventually we see an increase in lactose
    persistence (tolerance) but why
178
Q

Increase in Median Artery of the Forearm

A

“The median artery has been considered
as an embryonic structure, which normally regresses around the 8th week of gestation.”

“Analysis of the literature showed that the
presence of the median artery has been significantly increasing (p = .001) over
time, from approximately 10% in people born in the mid-1880s to approximately
30% by the end of the 20th century.”

biodiversity (4 decks)

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