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BIO1210 > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What is mitosis?

A

A single “parent” cell divides resulting in 2 “daughter” cells

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2
Q
A
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3
Q

What does mitosis accomplish with unicellular organisms?

A

Asexual reproduction

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4
Q

What does mitosis accomplish with multicellular organisms?

A

Growth and repair

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5
Q

Definition of meiosis?

A

A single “parent” cell divides resulting 4 “daughter” cells

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6
Q

What are daughter cells?

A

Gametes (eggs or sperm)

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7
Q

Are gametes genetically identical or unique?

A

Unique

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8
Q

Does meiosis accomplish asexual or sexual reproduction?

A

Sexual reproduction

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9
Q

What is DNA?

A

The inherited information-containing molecule

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10
Q

Where is DNA located?

A

In the nucleus of cells

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11
Q

What are genes?

A

Discrete segments of DNA that code for specific proteins

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12
Q

How does DNA exist?

A

As very long molecular strands called chromosomes

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13
Q

How many genes are in a chromosome?

A

Thousands

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14
Q

How many chromosomes do human cells have?

A

46

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15
Q

Name for diffuse state that chromosomes exist in?

A

Chromatin

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16
Q

What happens to chromosomes when the cell is not dividing?

A

They are in chromatin; spread throughout the nucleus and individually cannot be distinguished

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17
Q

When are chromosomes duplicated?

A

When the cell is preparing to divide

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18
Q

Where are chromatids attached at?

A

Centromere

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19
Q

What do chromosomes wrap and coil around?

A

Histone proteins

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20
Q
A
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21
Q
A
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22
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

Sequence of stages between when a cell is first produced by cell division and when it in turn divides

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23
Q

What percent of the cell cycle is spent in interphase?

A

90%

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24
Q

What is happening during interphase?

A

The cell is not dividing but growing

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25
Q

How many phases does interphase have?

A

3; G1, S, G2

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26
Q

What happens during G1 phase?

A

The cell performs its normal functions, with cell growth

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27
Q

What is produced during G1 phase?

A

New cytoplasm (organelles and cytosol)

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28
Q

What state are chromosomes in during G1?

A

Diffuse chromatic

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29
Q

What happens during the S phase?

A

Chromosomes duplicate, DNA synthesis

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30
Q

What happens during the G2 phase?

A

Cells perform normal functions, cells continue to grow, chromosomes still exist as chromatin

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31
Q

What happens to DNA in G2 phase?

A

Each chromosome now has 2 chromatids, so DNA has doubled

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32
Q

What percent of the cell cycle is spent in the mototic phase?

A

10%

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33
Q

During what phase does cell division occur?

A

Mitotic phase

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34
Q

The mitotic phase consists of _____ and ______

A

Mitosis, cytokinesis

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35
Q

What is mitosis?

A

The division of the nucleus

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36
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

The division of the cytoplasm

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37
Q

What are the 4 stages of mitosis?

A

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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38
Q

Cytokinesis occurs simultaneously with ____

A

Telophase

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39
Q

Acronym for the 4 continuous stages of mitosis?

A

PMAT- please move across the cell

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40
Q

What coils around histones and become individually distinct?

A

Chromosomes

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41
Q

What moves toward opposite “poles” of the cell in prophase?

A

Centrosomes

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42
Q

What manufactures the mitotic spindle?

A

Centrioles

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43
Q

What are centrioles made out of?

A

Microtubules

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44
Q

The ____ extends from each centrosome

A

Mitotic spindle

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45
Q

What breaks down during prophase?

A

Nuclear Envelope

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46
Q

What are kinetochores?

A

Specific centromere proteins where spindle microtubules attach to

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47
Q

During metaphase, the _____ ______ aligns with the _____ at the ______ of the cell

A

Mitotic spindle; chromosomes; “equator”

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48
Q

What is the metaphase plate?

A

“equator” of the cell

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49
Q

What happens to the spindle microtubules attached to the chromosome’s centromeres during anaphase?

A

They shorten

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50
Q

What happens during anaphase?

A

Chromatids pulled apart, are now individual chromosomes

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51
Q

What happens to spindle microtubules that extend across the cell during anaphase?

A

They lengthen

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52
Q

What happens when the spindle microtubules lengthen?

A

They push the poles further apart, elongating the cell

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53
Q

What happens during telophase?

A

Chromosomes have now reached opposite poles of the cell, and the mitotic spindle breaks down

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54
Q

What happens when the chromosomes are on opposite poles of the cell?

A

A nuclear envelope forms around each pole and chromosomes return to the chromatin state

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55
Q

A _______ _____ forms in animal cells during cytokinesis

A

Cleavage furrow

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56
Q

What begins shallow but deepens in ctokinesis?

A

Ring of microfilaments

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57
Q

The ____ ____ is cleaved down its center, pinching the parent cell into ____ _____ ______ daughter cells

A

Elongated cell; 2 genetically identical

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58
Q

What forms during cytokinesis plant cells?

A

A cell plate

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59
Q

____ with cell wall material are _____ in the _____ of the elongated cell

A

Vesicles; deposited; center

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60
Q

Vesicles fuse to form a?

A

Cell plate

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61
Q

What does the cell plate fuse with?

A

Cell wall of the parent cell

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62
Q

Are the daughter cells of plant cells cytokinesis genetically identical or unique

A

Identical

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63
Q

What is the term for a chromosome pair?

A

Homologous chromosome

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64
Q

A gene for a particular trait is found at the _____ ______ on both homologous chromosomes

A

Same location

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65
Q

What is the name for the specific physical location for a gene?

A

Locus

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66
Q

Examples of somatic cells?

A

Human skin, nails, body cells

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67
Q

An organisms body cells are called?

A

Somatic cells

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68
Q

How many pairs of homologous chromosomes do human somatic cells contain?

A

23

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69
Q

How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are called autosomes?

A

22 pairs

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70
Q

Genes for traits other than _____ are located on _____

A

Gender; autosomes

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71
Q

How many pairs are called sex chromosomes?

A

1 pair

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72
Q

What do sex chromosomes determine?

A

Gender

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73
Q

An XX individual is?

A

Female

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74
Q

An XY individual is?

A

Male

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75
Q

What does meiosis do?

A

Separate chromosomes of a homologous pair producing cells with half the number of chromosomes

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76
Q

What are cells called in meiosis?

A

Gametes

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77
Q

The human life cycle is the sequence of stages between ____

A

The adults of one generation and the adults of the next generation

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78
Q

What are human somatic cells called?

A

Diploid

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79
Q

What do diploid cells have?

A

Both members of each homologous pair of chromosomes

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80
Q

2n=?

A

46

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81
Q

What are gametes called?

A

Haploid

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82
Q

What do haploid cells have?

A

One member of each homologous pair of chromosomes

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83
Q

n=?

A

23

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84
Q

Haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) are produced by?

A

Meiosis

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85
Q

Where are haploid gametes produced?

A

In the gonads (ovaries and testes)

86
Q

What is the fusion of gametes?

A

Fertilization

87
Q

What produced a single cell called a zygote?

A

Fertilization

88
Q

Are zygotes diploid or haploid?

A

Diploid

89
Q

What happens with fertilization?

A

A zygote receives one member of each homologous pair from the egg (from mom) and the other member of each homologous pair form the sperm (from dad)

90
Q

Meiosis is the?

A

Reducing the chromosome number from diploid to haploid

91
Q

Fertilization is the?

A

Reestablishing of diploid chromosome number

92
Q

What do meiosis and fertilization form the basis of?

A

Sexual reproduction

93
Q

Cell division during which a _____ cell gives rise to ______ ______ ____

A

Diploid; four haploid gametes

94
Q

In what state are the chromosomes during interphase?

A

Chromatin

95
Q

What do chromosomes do during chromatin in interphase?

A

They duplicate to form sister chromatids

96
Q

Where are chromosomes attached at?

A

Centromeres

97
Q

Stages of Meiosis?

A

Interphase, Meiosis I, Meiosis II

98
Q

What happens during meiosis I?

A

A diploid cell divides, producing 2 haploid cells

99
Q

What happens during Meiosis II?

A

2 haploid cells divide, producing 3 haploid cells (gametes)

100
Q

First stage of meiosis I?

A

Prophase

101
Q

The joining of 2 homologous chromosomes is termed?

A

Synapsis

102
Q

2 homologous chromosomes X 2 sister chromatids each=?

A

Tetrad

103
Q

What occurs during prophase I? (meiosis)

A

Crossing over

104
Q

What pairs up in prophase I? (meiosis)

A

Homologous chromosomes

105
Q

What coils tightly around histones and become individually distinct?

A

Chromosomes in prophase I

106
Q

What happens to the centrosomes in prophase I? (meiosis)

A

The 2 of them move toward opposite poles of the cell

107
Q

Centrioles manufacture a spindle of?

A

Microtubules

108
Q

The spindle extends from ?

A

Each centrosome

109
Q

What breaks down in prophase I? (meiosis)

A

Nuclear envelope

110
Q

Where do the spindle microtubules attach to the chromosomes at centromeres? (meiosis)

A

Kinetochores

111
Q

What happens do spindle microtubules in meiosis I? (meiosis)

A

Each spindle microtubule attached to only one member of each homologous pair

112
Q

What happens during Metaphase I? (meiosis)

A

The homologous pairs of chromosomes (tetrad) are aligned at the equator of the cell

113
Q

The spindle microtubules attached to chromosomes’ centromeres in anaphase I _____? (meiosis)

A

Shortern

114
Q

The spindle microtubules that extend across the entire cell in anaphase I _____? (meiosis)

A

Lengthen

115
Q

What remains attached during anaphase I? (meiosis)

A

Sister chromatids

116
Q

What happens to homologous chromosomes during telophase I? (meiosis)

A

They reach the opposite poles of the cell

117
Q

What forms during telophase I? (meiosis)

A

Nuclear envelopes

118
Q

Do chromosomes return to the chromatin state during telophase (Meiosis)

A

No

119
Q

What breaks down in telophase (meiosis)?

A

The Spindle

120
Q

Difference between cytokinesis in animals and plants?

A

Animals- cleavage furrow, plants- cell plate

121
Q

Are the daughter cells haploids or diploids in meiosis I?

A

Haploid, with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell

122
Q

What does Meiosis II consist of?

A

Prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II

123
Q

During meiosis II each cell begins and ends with a _____ chromosome number

A

Haploid

124
Q

During mitosis each cell begins and ends with a _____ chromosome number

A

Diploid

125
Q

Genetic variation is essential for?

A

Evolution identical offspring

126
Q

Asexual reproduction produce?

A

Genetically identical offspring

127
Q

Sexual reproduction produces?

A

Genetically unique offspring

128
Q

What consists of crossing over, independent assortment of chromosomes and random fertilization?

A

Meiosis and fertilization

129
Q

Is the orientation of homologous pairs of chromosomes during metaphase I random?

A

Yes

130
Q

How many possible chromosome combinations are there for a human gamete?

A

About 8 million

131
Q

What is random fertilization?

A

A random egg is fertilized by a random sperm

132
Q

For the resulting zygote how many possible chromosome combinations are there?

A

64 trillion

133
Q

What does crossing over produce?

A

Recombinant chromosomes with genetic information distinct from the parental chromosomes

134
Q

During what phase are small segments of non-sister chromatids on homologous chromosomes exchanged?

A

Prophase I

135
Q

What is the name for sites of crossing over?

A

Chiasmata

136
Q

What do errors during meiosis do?

A

They alter the number of chromosomes within cells

137
Q

What is nondisjunctoin?

A

A failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis

138
Q

What fails to separate during anaphase I?

A

Homologous chromosomes

139
Q

What fails to separate during anapahse II?

A

Sister chromatids

140
Q

What results in gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes?

A

Nondisjunction

141
Q

Zygotes resulting from fertilization of abnormal gametes with have what?

A

Abnormal chromosome numbers

142
Q

2n+1=?

A

Trisomy

143
Q

2n-1=?

A

Monosomy

144
Q

Do abnormalities pass to all somatic cells as the zygote grows by mitosis?

A

Yes

145
Q

What does nondisjunction result in very early during pregnancies?

A

Spontaneous abortion (miscarriages)

146
Q

What is trisomy 21?

A

condition involving an extra 21st chromosome

147
Q

Condition number for down syndrome?

A

2n+1 condition

148
Q

XYY

A

Normal male

149
Q

XXX

A

Normal female

150
Q

XXY

A

Klinefelter syndrome

151
Q

XO

A

Turner syndrome

152
Q

What is genetics the study of?

A

Heredity

153
Q

What is heredity?

A

The transmission and inheritance of traits from one generation to the next

154
Q

P generation?

A

Parent generation

155
Q

F1 generation?

A

First generation of offspring- produced by mating of P individuals

156
Q

F2 generation

A

2nd generation of offspring, produced by mating of F1 individuals

157
Q

What are genes?

A

Discrete segments of DNA

158
Q

What are hereditary units that carry information coding for particulat traits?

A

Genes

159
Q

What are alleles?

A

Alternative forms of a gene

160
Q

Example of a gene?

A

Eye color

161
Q

Example of alleles?

A

Brown, blue, green- alleles for eye color

162
Q

How many genes does an organisms inherit from each parent?

A

One

163
Q

What does it mean to be homozygous?

A

2 alleles are the same

164
Q

What does it mean to be heterozygous?

A

2 alleles are different

165
Q

If an organism is heterozygous, how many alleles are expressed?

A

One

166
Q

What does it mean to be dominant?

A

The expressed allele in a heterozygous organism

167
Q

What does it mean to be recessive?

A

The allele is not expressed in a heterozygous organism

168
Q

Masked defintion?

A

Has no noticeable effect

169
Q

What is the genetic makeup of an organisms combination of alleles?

A

Genotype

170
Q

What is phenotype?

A

The expressed physical traits of an organism, outward expression of the organism’s genotype

171
Q

Homozygous dominant (AA) genotype

A

Dominant phenotype

172
Q

Homozygous recessive (aa) genotype

A

Recessive phenotype

173
Q

Heterozygous (Aa) genotype

A

Dominant phenotype

174
Q

Who was the first to establish the principles of genetics?

A

Gregor mendel

175
Q

When was Gregor Mendel experimenting with pea plants?

A

1860’s

176
Q

Pea plants possess ____ possible alleles for each of the _____ visible traits

A

Two; seven

177
Q

Pea plants have male and female reproductive structures on the same flowers so they can do what?

A

Self-fertilize

178
Q

What did Mendel was to control and ensure?

A

Cross fertilization

179
Q

What did Mendel to ensure cross-fertilization?

A

Removed male structures from certain plants, then pollinated female structures of these plants with pollen taken from other plants

180
Q

What is a cross between individuals differing in just one trait?

A

Monohybrid cross

181
Q

What did Mendel mate?

A

Homozygous dominant parent plants (PP; purple flowers) with homozygous recessive parent plants (pp; white flowers)

182
Q

What color did the offspring F1 exhibit?

A

All of them showed dominant purple flowers

183
Q

What color showed when Mendel mated plants of F1 generation with each other?

A

3/4 dominant purple, 1/4 recessive white

184
Q

An individual has _____ alleles for each trait because chromosomes occur in _____ pairs

A

Two; homologous

185
Q

Alleles for the same gene are found at the ____ on both homologous chromosomes called the _____

A

Same location; locus

186
Q

What is Mendel’s law of segregation?

A

During Meiosis homologous chromosomes separate, gametes carry only 1 allele for each trait

187
Q

what brings homologous chromosomes together?

A

Fertilization of gametes

188
Q

What is the punnett square used for?

A

Predict and display the results of genetic crosses

189
Q

A monohybrid cross between 2 individuals heterozygous results in?

A

3:1 phenotypic ratio (3 dom: 1 rec), 1:2:1 genotypic ratio (1 homo: 2 hetero: 1 homo)

190
Q

What offspring can result betwen a homozygous dom male (WW) and a homozygous rec female (ww)?

A

All offspring are heterozygous (Ww)

191
Q

What are the possible offspring between 2 heterozygotes? (Ww)

A

3 Ww: 1 ww

192
Q

What is the probability that 2 heterozygous parents (Ww x Ww) have 4 children with (ww)?

A

1/4x1/4x1/4x1/4= 1/256= .39%

193
Q

What is dihybrid cross?

A

Cross between individuals differing in 2 traits

194
Q

Mendel mated homozygous dom parents plants (RRYY) with homozygous rec parent plants (rryy), what did the offspring exhibit?

A

All offspring showed dominant

195
Q

What is Mendel’s law of independent assortment?

A

Each pair of alleles segregates independent of all other pairs during gamete formation, the inheritance of 1 character has no effect on inheritance of any other characters

196
Q

What does a dihybrid cross between 2 individuals heterozygous for 3 traits result in?

A

9:3:3:1 phenotypic ration- 9 dom for both, 3 dom for 1st trait, 3 rec for 1st trait but dom for 2nd, 1 rec for both traits

197
Q

A _____ cross is equivalent to two separate ____ crosses

A

Dihybrid ; monohybrid

198
Q

What is the chromosome theory of inheritance?

A

Chromosomes sort and separate randomly during meiosis- carrying their alleles with them

199
Q

The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis explains Mendel’s two laws called?

A

Law of segregation, law of independent assortment

200
Q

What are testcrosses used to determine?

A

Unknown genotypes

201
Q

If an individual displays a recessive phenotype, the genotype must be?

A

aa

202
Q

If an individual displays a dominant phenotype, the genotype could be?

A

AA, Aa

203
Q

How was the testcross used by Mendel?

A

To ensure the pea plants in his parent generation were homozygous dominant and not heterozygous

204
Q

Pedigree analysis is used to determine?

A

Unknown genotypes

205
Q

What does pedigree analysis analyze?

A

The matings that have already occured

206
Q

How do recessive disorders happen?

A

Due to homozygous recessive combination of alleles

207
Q

Examples of recessive disorders?

A

Genetic deafness, cystic fibrosis

208
Q

Why do recessive disorders persist?

A

Because heterozygous individuals who do not have the disorder are carriers of the allele for the disorder

209
Q

Is it likely that 2 individuals carrying a rare recessive allele will meet and mate?

A

No

210
Q

Dominant disorders are due to what?

A

A homozygous dominant or heterozygous combination of alleles

211
Q

Examples of dominant disorders?

A

Genetic Alzheimer’s disease, huntington’s disease

212
Q

Why do dominant disorders persist?

A

Because they occur later in life

BIO1210 (5 decks)

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