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Cognitive Psychology > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

The conjunction rule states that…

A

the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone

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2
Q

Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _______ reasoning

A

Inductive

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3
Q

How do we evaluate whether something is true?

A

through formal reasoning

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4
Q

Types of formal reasoning

A

deduction and induction

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5
Q

Deduction

A
  • theory-based inference
  • top-down
  • either true or false
  • validation
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6
Q

Induction

A
  • data-based inference
  • bottom-up
  • probabilistic conclusions
  • prediction
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7
Q

Syllogism

A

a form of deductive reasoning; an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed premises, each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion

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8
Q

A syllogism is valid if…

A

the conclusion follows from the premises

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9
Q

Belief bias

A

tendency to think syllogism is valid if conclusion is believable

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10
Q

Belief-logic conflict

A

if conclusion is believable, people are less sensitive to validity

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11
Q

Induction

A
  • drawing general conclusion from examples
  • not guaranteed to be correct
  • probabilistic conclusions
  • prediction
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12
Q

What strengthens inductive reasoning?

A

frequency and representativeness

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13
Q

Frequency in induction

A

conclusion from many examples is more convincing than few

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14
Q

Representativeness in induction

A

generalization is more justified if examples and target case are more similar

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15
Q

Heuristic

A
  • a rule of thumb
  • not guaranteed to give right answer
  • “fast and frugal”
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16
Q

Availability heuristic

A

to estimate the frequency of an event, assess how easily it comes to mind
- can be distorted by familiarity and salience

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17
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

the likelihood that case A is a member of class B depends on how well A resembles members of B
- works often, but may be distorted by neglecting actual probabilities

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18
Q

Anchoring and adjustment

A

when making an evaluation, make an initial estimate (anchor) and then adjust this value to fit additional information

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19
Q

People are often ____ in the domain of gains and ____ in the domain of losses

A

risk averse; risk seeking

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20
Q

People avoid risk for…

A

gains

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21
Q

People seek risk when avoiding…

A

losses

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22
Q

Decoy effect

A

violation of consistence through third (irrelevant) option

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23
Q

People weigh ____ heavier than ____

A

losses; gains

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24
Q

Endowment effect

A

people value their goods more if they own them

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25
Q

True or false: unrelated mood changes influence what actions we prefer

A

true

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26
Q

Availability heuristic

A

states that events that more easily come to mind are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily recalled
- error occurs when easily remembered event is less probable

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27
Q

Backfire effect

A

the finding that an individual’s support for a particular viewpoint could actually become stronger when faced with corrective facts opposing their viewpoint
- error occurs when person holds to their beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence

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28
Q

Base rate

A

the relative proportion of different classes in the population
- error occurs when base rate information is not taken into account

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29
Q

Belief bias

A

the tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable

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30
Q

Categorical syllogism

A

the premises and conclusion are statements that begin with All, No, or Some

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31
Q

Conditional syllogism

A

have two premises and a conclusion like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise has the form “if…then”

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32
Q

Confirmation bias

A

occurs when people look for information that conforms to their hypothesis and ignore information that refutes it
- error occurs when there is a narrow focus only on confirming information

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33
Q

Conjunction rule

A

the probability of a conjunction of two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents
- error occurs when higher probability is assigned to the conjunction

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34
Q

Decision

A

the process of choosing between alternatives

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35
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

we determine whether a conclusion logically follows from statements

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36
Q

Dual systems approach

A
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37
Q

Expected emotion

A

emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome

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38
Q

Expected utility theory

A

assumes that people are basically rational and that if people have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility, where utility refers to outcomes that achieve a person’s goals

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39
Q

Falsification principle

A

to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule

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40
Q

Framing effect

A

decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated, or framed

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41
Q

Heuristics

A

“rules of thumb” that are likely to provide the correct answer but are not foolproof

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42
Q

Illusory correlation

A

occurs when a relationship between two events appear to exist, but in reality, there is no relationship or the relationship is much weaker than it is assumed to be
- error occurs when there is no correlation, or it is weaker than it appears to be

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43
Q

Incidental emotions

A

emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision

44
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

the process of drawing several conclusions based on specific observations and evidence

45
Q

Judgment

A
46
Q

Law of large numbers

A

the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population
- error occurs when it is assumed that a small number of individuals accurately represents the entire population

47
Q

Mental model

A

a specific situation represented in a person’s mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning

48
Q

Mental model approach

A
49
Q

Myside bias

A

people can evaluate evidence in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes
- error occurs when people let their own opinions and attitudes influence how they evaluate evidence needed to make decisions

50
Q

Neuroeconomics

A

a new approach to studying decision making that combines research from psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses

51
Q

Permission schema

A

states that if a person satisfies a specific condition, then he or she gets to carry out an action

52
Q

Premise

A

a broad statement, part of a syllogism

53
Q

Reasoning

A

the process of drawing conclusions

54
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

states that the likelihood that an instance is a member of a larger category depends on how well that instance resembles properties we typically associate with that category
- error occurs when presence of similar properties doesn’t predict membership in class B

55
Q

Risk aversion

A

the tendency to avoid taking risks

56
Q

Risk aversion strategy

A
57
Q

Status quo bias

A

the tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

58
Q

Stereotype

A

an oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative

59
Q

Syllogism

A

consists of two broad statements, or premises, followed by a third statement called the conclusion; the basic form of deductive reasoning

60
Q

Ultimatum game

A
61
Q

Utility

A

refers to outcomes that achieve a person’s goals

62
Q

Validity

A
63
Q

Wason four-card problem

A
64
Q

Language

A

a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

65
Q

Hierarchical nature of language

A

language consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units

66
Q

Rule-based nature of language

A

means that components of language can be arranged in certain ways but not in others

67
Q

psycholinguistics

A

the field concerned with the psychological study of language; goal is to discover the psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language

68
Q

What are the four major concerns of psycholinguistics?

A

Comprehension, representation, speech production, acquisition

69
Q

Lexicon

A

all of the words we know; our “mental dictionary”

70
Q

Semantics

A

the meaning of language

71
Q

Lexical semantics

A

meaning of words

72
Q

Word frequency

A

the frequency with which a word appears in a language

73
Q

Word frequency effect

A

refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words than to low-frequency words; the reason this is important is because a word’s frequency influences how we process the word

74
Q

Lexical decision task

A

one way to illustrate processing differences between high and low frequency words in which the task is to decide as quickly as possible whether strings of letters are words or nonwords

75
Q

Speech segmentation

A

the perception of individual words even though there are often no pauses between words

76
Q

Lexical ambiguity

A

the idea that words can often have more than one meaning

77
Q

Lexical priming

A

priming that involves the meaning of words; occurs when a word is followed by another word with a similar meaning

78
Q

Meaning dominance

A

the relative frequency of the meanings of ambiguous words

79
Q

Biased dominance

A
80
Q

Balanced dominance

A
81
Q

Syntax

A

the structure of a sentence

82
Q

Parsing

A

considering how meaning is created by the grouping of words into phrases; making sense of sentences

83
Q

Garden path sentences

A

sentences which begin appearing to mean one thing but then end up meaning something else

84
Q

Temporary ambiguity

A

illustrated by garden path sentences; first one organization is adopted and then, when the error is realized, the person shifts to the correct organization

85
Q

Garden path model of parsing

A

as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of processing mechanisms called heuristics

86
Q

Heuristic

A

a rule that can be applied rapidly to make a decision

87
Q

Late closure

A

when a person encounters a new word, the person’s parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible

88
Q

Constraint-based approach to parsing

A

the idea that information in addition to syntax participates in processing as a person reads or hears a sentence

89
Q

Visual world paradigm

A

involves determining how information in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed

90
Q

Subject-relative construction

A
91
Q

Object-relative construction

A
92
Q

Inferences

A

determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text; an important part of the process of creating a coherent story

93
Q

Narrative

A

texts in which there is a story that progresses from one event to another

94
Q

Coherence

A

an important property of any narrative; the representation of the text in a person’s mind that creates clear relations between parts of the text and between parts of the text and the main topic of the story

95
Q

Anaphoric inference

A
96
Q

Instrument inference

A
97
Q

Causal inference

A

you infer that events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence

98
Q

Situation model

A
99
Q

Given-new contract

A
100
Q

Common ground

A
101
Q

Referential communication task

A
102
Q

Entrainment

A
103
Q

Syntactic coordination

A
104
Q

Syntactic priming

A
105
Q

Theory of mind

A
106
Q

Prosody

A
107
Q
A

Cognitive Psychology (9 decks)

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