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Cognitive Psychology > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Encoding

A

the process of storing information into long-term memory during the learning experience

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2
Q

What factors make for better encoding?

A

depth of processing

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3
Q

What factors do not make for better encoding?

A

repetition, intention to remember

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4
Q

Levels of processing

A

structural, phonemic, category; idea is that the deeper the stimulus is processed, the better it is encoded

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5
Q

Survival

A

surprise memory test showed that carrying out a “survival” task while reading the words resulted in better memory than other elaborative encoding procedures
- context: participants imagining that they are stranded are presented with a list of words; their task was to rate each word based on how relevant it would be for finding supplies of food and water and providing protection from predators

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6
Q

Self-reference

A

memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself (i.e., self-reference - whether the word describes yourself - had higher recognition of the words than those in the common conditions who were asked to indicate whether the word was commonly used)

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7
Q

Understanding

A

Increased understanding leads to better encoding (laundry example with context via picture versus no context given before the paragraph)

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8
Q

Generation

A

generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention of information

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9
Q

Summary for encoding

A
  • increased elaboration leads to better encoding
  • richer network of semantic connections during encoding
  • more ways to retrieve information during recall
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10
Q

Levels of processing in testing

A

testing provides a way of elaborating the material rather than just learning through studying only

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11
Q

Levels of processing summary

A
  • increased elaboration leads to better encoding
  • richer network of semantic connections during encoding
  • more ways to retrieve information during recall
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12
Q

Storage/consolidation

A

the strengthening of information in long-term memory after the learning experience

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13
Q

Standard model of memory

A

initial experience –> consolidation –> fully encoded

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14
Q

Hippocampal replay during sleep

A
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15
Q

Interference with hippocampal replay

A
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16
Q

Sleep-driven consolidation in humans

A
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17
Q

Consolidation and dreaming

A
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18
Q

Retrieval

A

transferring information from LTM into working memory

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19
Q

Retrieval cues

A

a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory

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20
Q

Tip of the tongue effect

A
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21
Q

Cued recall

A

participant is presented with retrieval cues to aid in recall of the previously experienced stimuli

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22
Q

Uncued recall

A

a participant is asked to recall stimuli without any retrieval cues

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23
Q

Retrieval cues conclusions

A

retrieval cues are significantly more effective when they are created by the person whose memory is being tested

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24
Q

Encoding specificity

A

matching context between encoding and retrieval assists performance

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25
Q

Memories as associations

A
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26
Q

Godden & Baddeley diving study

A

results indicated that the best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location (i.e., both on land or both underwater)

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27
Q

Grant et al. noise study

A

participants performed better on a short-answer test when the testing condition matched the study condition (i.e., study in quiet and test in quiet)

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28
Q

Eich & Metcalf mood study

A

performed better at remembering the words from two days earlier when their mood at retrieval matched their mood during the encoding (state-dependent learning)

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29
Q

Goodwin et al. alcohol study

A
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30
Q

Encoding specificity conclusions

A
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31
Q

Transfer appropriate processing

A
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32
Q

Morris et al. study

A

participants who focused on rhyming during encoding remembered more words in the rhyming test than participants who had focused on meaning; thus, the participants who had focused on the word’s sound during the first part of the experiment did better when the test involved focusing on sound (transfer appropriate processing)
- showed that deeper processing at encoding does not always result in better retrieval

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33
Q

Transfer appropriate processing vs. levels of processing

A

transfer appropriate processing: better performance when the type of processing matches in encoding and retrieval
levels of processing: deeper processing at encoding leads to better retrieval

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34
Q

Interference

A
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35
Q

Proactive interference

A

when previously learned information interferes with learning new information

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36
Q

Retroactive interference

A

when new information interferes with retrieving previously learned information

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37
Q

Evidence for proactive interference

A
  • studied 10 pairs of adjectives –> came back, recalled the old test, and studied a new one –> repeated this process twice more
  • with no previous list to remember, recall is higher, but with increasing number of things to remember, recall decreases
  • possibly due to competition during retrieval
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38
Q

Evidence for retroactive interference

A
  • participant studied a list of pairs in two sessions (experimental condition, the AB and AD list shared A part; control condition, no overlap) –> in test phase, they were asked what they remember from the first session
  • experimental condition showed much worse performance –> retrieval competition (have to resolve some conflict between what you learned in session one versus session two)
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39
Q

Retrieval induced forgetting

A
  • memories are constantly in swing
  • elements can be suppressed and activated
  • retrieval biases towards recent goals
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40
Q

Constructive memory

A
  • memories are not a carbon copy of the past
  • prone to revision and error
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41
Q

Retrieval conclusions

A
  • the effectiveness of retrieval depends on what you do with information
  • retrieval is error prone (interference)
  • retrieval can change memories (retrieval induced forgetting)
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42
Q

Anderson paradigm

A
  • retrieval induced forgetting
  • weakened association between category and unrehearsed item
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43
Q

Inhibition vs. response blocking

A
  • blocking idea is that practiced words occupy the ‘response channel’
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44
Q

Neuroimaging study

A
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45
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

memory for specific experiences from our life
- they are multidimensional, meaning: the memory includes several sensory modalities; the memory takes place in 3D space; there are thoughts and emotions associated with the memory

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46
Q

Everyday memory

A
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47
Q

Episodic components of autobiographical memories

A
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48
Q

Semantic components of autobiographical memories

A
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49
Q

Multidimensionality of autobiographical memories

A
  • the memory includes several sensory modalities
  • the memory takes place in 3D space
  • there are thoughts and emotions associated with the memory
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50
Q

Emotions associated with event

A
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51
Q

Distinctiveness associated with event

A
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52
Q

Reminiscence bump

A

enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40

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53
Q

Self-image hypothesis

A

proposes that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person’s self-image or life identity is being formed

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54
Q

Cognitive hypothesis

A

proposes that periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cause stronger encoding of memories

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55
Q

Cultural life script hypothesis

A

distinguishes between a person’s life story, which is all of the events that have occurred in a person’s life, and a cultural life script, which is the culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the life span

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56
Q

Emotion and memory

A
  • more correct recognitions were given for emotional images than neutral images
  • activation for emotional recognitions was shown not just in the hippocampus, but also the amygdala
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57
Q

Effect of amygdala

A
  • impaired amygdala group showed no memory benefit for the scary picture
  • evidence that amygdala activation is important in consolidating emotional memories
58
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

refers to a person’s memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events
- refers to memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event, not memory for the event itself
- typically occur under highly emotional circumstances
- associated with overt narrative rehearsal
- person typically reports many vivid details long after the event occurred

59
Q

Constructive nature of memory

A

what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as the person’s knowledge, experiences, and expectations
- remembering something may distort or change the memory based on new information

60
Q

Overt rehearsal

A

offers opportunity to include new information with the event, thus leading to decreased accuracy for flashbulb memories
- expectations and outside knowledge about the event may distort or change how the event is remembered

61
Q

DRM paradigm

A

a false memory induction
- the constructive nature of memory can lead to false memory
- example from class: people remember “window” because it was semantically related to the other words

62
Q

Source monitoring errors

A

the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs; so an error is misidentifying the source of a memory

63
Q

Source monitoring errors

A

occur when you retrieve information but misremember where the information came from

64
Q

Jacoby et al. (1989) study

A

participants tested after a delay were more likely to identify the old non famous names as being famous
- the name is familiar, but the source is no longer attached

65
Q

Fake news

A
  • source monitoring is harder when there is so much information and so many sources
  • the information has become divorced from the source - no longer discredit the bad source of the info
66
Q

Previous knowledge

A

previous knowledge affects memory via scripts and schemas

67
Q

Scripts

A

our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience

68
Q

Schemas

A

a person’s knowledge about some aspect of the environment

69
Q

Eyewitness

A

eyewitness memory for autobiographical events is a major basis for evidence in the criminal justice system

70
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974) study

A
  • participants watched a video of a car crash and asked to report how fast the cars were going
  • the key manipulation is they were asked how fast the cars were going when they [insert verb here] each other
  • participants in the “smashed” condition estimated higher speeds and more likely to report broken glass –> misleading post-event information: autobiographical memory was reshaped by the way the question was framed
71
Q

Lindsay (1970) study

A

regarding flaws in eyewitness testimony:
- misleading post-event information is more likely to affect memory when it is closer to the actual memory
- source monitoring error

72
Q

Reasons for poor eyewitness

A
  • perception and attention
  • familiarity
  • suggestion
73
Q

Perception and attention in eyewitness

A
  • people can’t remember an event well if the event is not perceived
  • weapons focus: when witnessing a crime that includes a weapon, participants are less likely to remember information about the perpetrator
  • effect increases if the weapon is used
74
Q

Familiarity in eyewitness

A
  • participants misidentified an innocent bystander as the perpetrator because he was familiar
  • source monitoring?
75
Q

Suggestion in eyewitness

A
76
Q

Improvements for eyewitness testimony

A
  • inform the witness that the perpetrator may not be in the lineup
  • use fillers that look similar to the actual suspect
  • use a blind lineup administrator who does not know who is the suspect
  • have witnesses rate their confidence immediately
77
Q

Everyday memory conclusions

A
  • distinctiveness and emotion can make autobiographical memories more memorable
  • autobiographical memory goes awry in predictable, systematic ways –> we construct and reconstruct the memories we retrieve; the source and the information can become divorced; we fill in the gaps with what we expect from scripts and schemas
  • memory faults are typically harmless, but important to know memory is limited in situations where precise accuracy matters
78
Q

Artificial concepts

A
  • can be defined in terms of a rule
  • difference between necessary and sufficient conditions
79
Q

Learning artificial concepts

A

learn artificial categories via two theories: incremental learning theory and hypothesis testing

80
Q

Learning theory

A
  • you incrementally get better at classification
  • for every stimulus and category you increase association when correct, and decrease association when incorrect
81
Q

Hypothesis testing

A

basic idea: you will always be no better than guessing, until you hit the right hypothesis
- pick a random hypothesis, and test it
- stick with it, until you are correct: if incorrect, go back to 1

specifics:
- only works for a narrow class of concepts
- more recent, complex, models can handle more complex data
- lesson: for artificial concepts, people use hypothesis testing

82
Q

Artificial categories summary

A
  • features well-defined
  • no within-category variability
  • categorization follows a rule
83
Q

Posner & Keele experiment

A
84
Q

Natural categories

A
  • hard to enumerate all features
  • some examples are better category members
  • family resemblance (definitions do not include all members, allows for variation within category)
85
Q

Typicality

A

variations within categories

86
Q

Three different ways to determine typicality

A
87
Q

Prototype view

A

membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category

88
Q

Evidence of prototype view

A
89
Q

Issues with prototype view

A
  • people are sometimes sensitive to the specifics of particular instances
  • people are sensitive to the variability of instances
90
Q

Exemplar view

A
  • each exemplar is stored or forgotten
  • when a new case comes in, compare it to the stored examples
91
Q

Concepts in networks

A
  • computational models of distributed processing
  • neural and behavioral evidence
92
Q

Connectionist networks

A

an approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes

93
Q

Rogers & McClelland network model of semantic organization

A
94
Q

Learning in the R&M model

A
95
Q

Similarity measures and concept space

A
96
Q

Embodied cognition

A

states that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object

97
Q

Hauk et al. neuroimaging study

A
98
Q

Tucker and Ellis behavioral study

A
99
Q

Podric et al. TMS study

A
100
Q
A
101
Q

Problem solving

A
102
Q

Trial-and-error

A
103
Q

Thorndike

A
104
Q

Animal studies

A
105
Q

Law of effect

A
106
Q

Limitations of trial and error

A
107
Q

Insight

A

any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves a reorganization of a person’s mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious

108
Q

Sudden solution

A
109
Q

Restructuring

A
110
Q

Suppressing irrelevant information

A
111
Q

Kounios neuroimaging study

A
112
Q

Functional fixedness

A

focuses on familiar functions or uses of an object

113
Q

Algorithms

A
114
Q

Problem space theory

A
115
Q

Tower of Hanoi

A
116
Q

Full planning

A
117
Q

Heuristics

A
118
Q

Repeat state avoidance

A
119
Q

Difference reduction

A
120
Q

Means end analysis

A
121
Q

Interim conclusions

A
122
Q

Means end analysis in Tower of Hanoi

A

reduce the difference between the initial and goal states, which is achieved by creating subgoals

123
Q

Subgoal pseudoreward MRI study

A
124
Q

Analogies

A
125
Q

Structure mapping

A
126
Q

Atom discovery example

A
127
Q

Alignment of differences

A
128
Q

Analogy use in the lab

A
129
Q

Structural vs. surface similarity

A
130
Q

Water jug study

A
131
Q

Expertise

A
132
Q

Creativity

A
133
Q

Smith et al. drawing study

A
134
Q

Beaty et al. MRI study on suppressing primed concepts

A
135
Q

Finke’s preinventive forms

A
136
Q

The “generation effect” refers to…

A

the memory benefit of generating information rather than simply observing it

137
Q

Elaborative rehearsal of a word will least likely be accomplished by…

A

repeating it over and over again

138
Q

According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on the depth at which information is…

A

encoded

139
Q

The principle of _______ states that we encode information along with its context

A

encoding specificity

140
Q

Examples from your book describing real experiences of how memories, even ones from a long time ago, can be stimulated by locations, songs, and smells, highlight the importance of _______ in LTM

A

retrieval cues

141
Q
A

Cognitive Psychology (9 decks)

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