Exam 4 Flashcards
Biorhythm
Cyclical changes in behavior or bodily functions
Zeitgeber
a clock-setting cue
Entrainment
when a biorhythm is reset by a zeitgeber
Free-running rhythm
cycle that has a period of the body’s own devising
Jet lag
disruption of the body’s circadian phase
Circannual
yearly biorhythm (ex: migratory cycle of birds)
Circadian
daily biorhythm (ex: human sleep-wake cycle)
Ultradian
less than a day biorhythm (ex: human eating cycles)
Infradian
more than a day biorhythm (ex: human menstrual cycle)
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
master biological clock, mostly responsible for maintaining Circadian rhythms
Where is Suprachiasmatic nucleus located and what larger structure is it a part of?
It is located in the Hypothalmus and is part of the retinohypothalmic pathway
How do light signals (melanopsin photopigment signals) get from the retina to the SCN of the hypothalmus?
Light activates a special group of photoreceptors in the retina that send melanospin photopigment signals, via the retinal hypothalmic pathway (respond more slowly to light)
The pineal gland is an endocrine gland that produces the neurohormone melatonin at night.
In what situation mght taking a melatonin supplement be helpful?
Taking melatonin can help with insomnia. Taking it in the afternoon can phase-advance the biological clock, which can help relieve some jet lag.
What is the difference between advanced sleep phase disorder and delayed sleep phase disorder?
Advanced sleep phase disorder is when your rhythm makes you go to bed earlier while Delayed sleep phase disorder is when your rhythm you go to bed later
List interruptions of consciousness
Coma, vegetative state, minimally conscious state, and brain death
Coma
extended period of unsciousness caused by head trauma, stroke, or disease characterized by low brain activity that remains fairly steady
Vegetative state
person alternates between periods of sleep and moderate arousal but no awareness of surrounding
Minimally conscious state
one stage higher than a vegetative state marked by occassional brief periods of purposeful action and limited speech comprehension
Brain death
no sign of brain activity and no response to stimulus
Why do we sleep?
Conservation of energy, repair & restoration (release growth hormone to repair tissue), and learning & memory consolidation
Who sleeps more predator or prey?
Predatory animals sleep more than prey
When is human body temperature lowest during a 24-hour cycle?
Human termperature is lowest at 4:30 Am
What are growth hormones good for (besides growth) and when are they released during the 24-hour cycle?
Growth hormones are also good for regeneration of tissue, secreted during sleep
What tools do we use to measure that activity of the brain and body during sleep?
Polysomnograph
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Electromyogram (EMG)
Electroculogram (EOG)
Polysomnograph
measure activity of brain & body
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
record brain wave activity
Electromyogram (EMG)
record muscle actvity
Electroculogram (EOG)
record eye movement
Stage 1 of sleep
Overall brain activity is high, but declining
Alpha rhythm: relaxation; brain waves of 8-12 Hz
Stage 2 of sleep
Sleep spindles & K-complexes
Sleep spindles
memory consolidation and declarative memories
K-complexes
sharp, high amp negative wave followed by slower positive wave; protect person from waking due to stimuli; lows of make up
Stage 3 & 4 of sleep
Slow wave sleep
Heart rate, breathing, brain activity slow with each stage
Percent of slow, high amp waves increases
What in particular occurs in stage 4 of sleep
thalmus stops relaying sensory info to cortex (unless extreme or relevant)
REM sleep stage
Paradoxical sleep
Considerable brain activity, HR, BP and breathing are more variable; more facial twitches
Postural muscles of bofy are most relaxed
REM seems to intensify dreams, but REM x=x dreaming
Which is stage of sleep is paradoxical sleep and why?
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is also known as paradoxical sleep because it is the lightest sleep, weirdest dreams, and paralyzed body.
Which neurotransmitters begin and end REM sleep?
Acetylcholine begins REM sleep
Seratonin ends REM sleep
Atonia
a lack of muscle tone
How does age affect sleep patterns?
Duration of REM sleep varies with age and changes dramatically over the life span. It is high in infancy, increased during growth spurts, in conjunction with physical exertion, and during pregnancy.
Developing brain needs lots of sleep.
As we age neurons in certain reticular nuclei tend to degenerate.
Normal rhythm of sleep becomes dysregulated (less orderly sleep patterns and less deep slow wave sleep from stage 3 & 4)
Insomnia is very common in older people
Insomnia
sleep disorder associated with inadequate sleep
Occurs in NREM
Caused by: noise, stress, pain medication, disorders like epilepsy or Parkinson’s disease, depression, anxiety, other psychatric conditions, dependence on sleeping pills, shifts in circadian rhythms
Sleep apnea
sleep disorder known for inability to breathe while sleeping for a prolonged period of time
Occurs during both REM and NREM?
Symptoms: sleepiness during day, impaired attention, depression, sometimes heart problems
Narcolepsy
sleep disorder characterized by frequent periods of sleepness
Occurs during NREM?
Symptoms: gradual or sudden sleepiness, occasional cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic hallucinations
Cataplexy
muscle weakness triggered by strong emotions
Hypnagogic hallucinations
dreamlike experiences the persona has dfficulty distinguishing from reality
REM behavior disorder
vigorous movement during REM sleep
Acting out dreams (damage to pons)
Night terrors
experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens
During NREM
Sleep talking
occurs during both REM and NREM sleep
Sleep walking
runs in families, mostly in young children, and occurs mostly stage 3 & 4 of sleep (NREM)
Contrast sleep paralysis and sleep walking
Sleep paralysis is wakefulness while your motor system is still inhibited while Sleep walking is movement while your awareness is still inhibited
What are the effects of sleep deprivation (general, not specific peripheral effects)?
Cognitive deficits, poor reaction time, memory loss, mood imbalance, and hallucinations
Lack of sleep is secondarily deadily to humans (negative outcomes are deadily)
When do we dream?
Dream in both REM (real time, vivid dreams) and NREM (brief nightmares)
Learning
a change in an organism’s behavior as a result to experience
Memory
the ability to recall or recognize previous experience
Neuroplasticity
the nervous system’s potential for physical or chemical change, which engances its adaptibility
Associative learning
linkage of two or more unrelated stimuli to elicit a behavioral response
Classical conditioning
Pairing of 2 stimuli (conditioned stimuli + unconditioned stimuli = unconditioned response that turns conditioned)
Operant conditioning
instrumental conditioning, responses followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaker behavior
Latent learning
knowledge that only becomes clear when an organization has an incentive to display it (learning without obvious rewards or punishments)
Observational (social) learning
learning occurs by watching other’s behavior and observing the resulting consequences
Insight learning
the abrupt realization of a problem’s solution (firgure it out all on your own)
Who pioneered Classical conditioning (2 stimuli)
Ivan Pavlov
Who pioneered Operant conditioning (1 stimuli & 1 behavior)?
B.F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike
Albert Bandura believed that…
Observational (or social) learning because we see what behaviors by others are punished or rewarded
Long term memory (LTM)
memory of events from times further back
Working memory
emphasis on temporary storage of information to actively attend to it and work on it for a period of time
Consolidation
permanently storing short term memory into long term
What are the two types of long-term memory
Explicit/Declarative and Implicit/Non-Declarative
Explicit/Declarative memory
memories you can explain like events & facts
Implicit/Non-Declarative memory
memories you can show (skill memories)
What are the two types of Declarative/Explicit memory?
Episodic and Semantic memory
Episodic memory
memories for specific autobiographical events (ex: first kiss)
Semantic memory
memories for facts and general knowledge (ex: teacher’s name)
Anterograde vs. Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia is not being able to make memories moving forward while Retrograde amnesia is a loss of past memories
Who is patient H.M.?
Henry Molaison had a doctor perform a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection
What was learned from patient H.M.’s surgery?
Different brain circuits for different memories.
Can’t make episodic memories, but can make procedural (implicit).
What is working memory good for?
Gathering temporary memory that can be consolidated into long term memory
What part of the brain is important for consolidation?
Hippocampus (memory & mood)
What brain regions are implicated in emotional memories?
Amygdala (main), Hypothalmus and PAG, Basal ganglia, Medial temporal cortext, (Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital, Cingulate cortices)
Alzheimer’s disease
associated with gradually progressive loss of memory often occuring in old age
Affects people 50% over 85
Difference between early-onset vs. late-onset AD
Early onset seems to be influenced by genes, but 97-99% of cases are late onset
What are plaques?
Amyloid beta protein which produces widespread atrophy of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and other areas
Accumulation of sticky protein bits and pieces
What are tangles?
An abnormal form of the tau protein, part of intracellular support system neurons
Structures formed from degenerating structures within a neuronal body
What are some treatment options for AD?
Most treatments aimed for improving cognition work short term. Most immunizing strategies haven’t worked in trials.
The key is to prevent instead of treat (melatoning & good sleep)
Korsakoff syndrome
Permanent loss of ability to learn new information and to retrieve old information
What causes Korsakoff syndrome
Diecephalic damage from chronic alcoholism or malnutrition that produces a vitamin in B1deficiency
What are the symptoms of Korsakoff Syndrome?
apathy, confusion, forgetting, and confabulation
Confabulation
taking guesses to fill in gaps in memory
Hebbian synapse
a synapse that increases in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in pre- and post-synaptic neurons
What is the role of enriched environments or experiences on plasticity in the brain?
When an axon successfully stimulates a cell it will be even more successful in the future. Cells that fire together, wire together (more connections between axon to axon terminal)
Is stress good for memory
Yes and no… it depends.
Small to moderate amounts of adrenaline and cortisol activate amygdala & hippocampus where enhance storage & consolidation
Prolonged stress leads to prolonged cortisol, that impairs memory and hippocampus loses volume
Do we get new neurons?
Yes, in the Hippocampus to plump it back up when it shrinks due to stress/traumatic events
Diagnosis
involves distinguishing one illness from another
Etiology
apparent causation & developmental history of illness
Prognosis
a forecast about probable course of an illness
Clinical neuroscience
speciality in neuroscience that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases & disorders affecting the brain & CNS
How is clinical neuroscience different from neurology?
Neurology focuses on disorders that are part of the general nervous system while clinical neuroscience focuses on disorders of the brain & CNS
What is the main document utilized in the US to diagnose disorderded behavior?
American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V)
What is the estimate from the NIMH for US citizens with a diagnosable behavioral disorder?
1:5 people
Are checklists for behavior all we have to help with diagnoses?
No, we also have genetic analysis and neuroimaging
What types of causes are relatively straightforward for organic-neurological disorders?
Abnormality of brain anatomy and behavior
Positive (Add) symptoms of Schizophrenia
delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior or excessive agitation, catatonic behavior
Negative (Subtract) symptoms of Schizophrenia
blunted emotions or loss of interest and drive; the absence of some normal response
Delusions
beliefs that disotrt reality
Hallucinations
distorted perceptions
Disorganized speech
incoherent statements
What are some brain abnormalities in schizophrenia?
Lack of activity in the prefrontal cortex
Disorganized pyramidal neurons
Large ventricles and thinner cortex (medial temporal & frontal regions)
Composition of neurons and fibers (temporal & frontal lobes) changes
Abnormal dendritic fields in cells of the dorsal prefrontal regions, hippocampus, and entorhinal cortex
What is the evidence for a role of genetics in schizophrenia?
Diaphisis Stress Model
Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
Suggests abnormalities in the prenatal or neonatal development of the nervous system
Dopamine hypothesis of Schizophreniz
suggests that schizophrenia results from abnormal activity at dopamine synapses in certain areas of the brain
Glutamate hypothesis of Schizophrenia
suggests the problem relates partially to deficient activity at glutamate receptors, especially in prefrontal cortex
Signs of Major depressive disorder signs
prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt; disruption of normal eating habits; sleep disturbances; generaly slowing of behavior; frequent thoughts of suicide
Signs of Mania
characterized by excessive euphoria (subject perceives as typical); affected person often formulates grandioseplans and is uncontrollably hyperactive
Signs of Biopolar I
full manic episodes
Signs of Biopolar II
mil (hypo-) manic episodes that consist mostly of agitation or anxiety
Cognitive Behavioral therapy (CBT)
problem-focused, action-oriented, structured treatment for eliminating dysfunctional thoughts & maladaptive behavior
What type of disorder responds well to CBT?
Depression
What are the 4 categories of antidepressants?
- Tricyclics
- Selective serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs or SNRIs)
- MAOI’s
- Atypical antidepressants
Tricyclics
Lots of different chemicals, was originally prescribed to treat depression but a lot of side affects
Selective serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs or SNRIs)
If mess with one side of brain, less side effects
It stopes reuptake channels and encourages inhibtion
by postsynaptic cell so it thinks it has more than it does
MAOI’s
monoamine oxoamine enzyme (inhibits enzyme)
Emotional part of Manic vs Depressive episode
elated, euphoric, very sociable, impatient at hinderence
gloomy, hopeless, socially withdrawn, irritable
Cognitive part of Manic vs. Depressive Episode
characterized by racing thoughts, flight of ideas, desire for action, and impulsive behavior; talkative, self-confident, experiencing delusions of graneur
characterized by slowness of thought processes, obsessive worrying, inability to make decisions, negative self-image, self-blame, and delusions of guilt & disease
Motor part of Manic vs. Depressive Episode
Hyperactive, tireless, requiring less sleep than usual, showing increased sex drive and fluctuating appetite
less active, tired, difficulty sleeping, decreased sex drive & decreased appetite
Difference between Bipolar I and Bipolar II?
Bipolar I is full manic while Bipolar II is mild (hypo-) manic
Treatment option for Bipolar disorder I?
Lithium
a salt that stabilizes mood and prevents relapse in mania or depression
Mood stabilizer
But toxic after long period of time
Treatment option for Bipolar II?
Anticonvulsants
includes valproate (Depakote) and carbamazepine
Previously prescribed for seizures
Minimize activity
4 main treatment types for disorders
Neurosurgical, Electrophysiological, Pharmacological, and Behavioral
Neurosurgical treatment
skull is opened and some intervention is performed on the brain (ex: Deep brain stimulation; electrical stimulation)
Electrophysiological treatment
brain function is modified by stimulation through the skull (ex: Electroconvulsive Therapy)
Pharmocological treatment
a chemical that affects the brain is either ingested or injected (ex: drugs)
Behavioral treatment
treatment manipulates the body or expereince, which in turn influence the brain (ex: therapy)
Can things like exercise, music, and virtual reality help?
Yes
Music affects arousal and activates the motor and premotor cortical
Physical activity, including playing sports, combined with other therapies (counteracts effects of depression)
In general, what are some of the research challenges related to investigation and diagnosis of disorded behavior?
Organizational Complexity
Systematic Complexity
Neuronal Plasticity
Compensatory Plasticity
Technical Resolution
Modeling Simplicity
Modeling Limitations
Organizational Complexity
brain is the most complex organ
Systematic Complexity
Multiple receptor types for neurotransmitters, and effect is different at different types
Neuronal Plasticity
Everyone’s brain is different due to experience and genetics
Compensatory Plasticity
If there is a problem, there seems to be several “backups” in place
Technical Resolution
Is our technology good enough to see what might be there?
Modeling Simplicity
Drug help isn’t always directly at receptors for that drug
Modeling Limitations
Non-human animal model x=x human
