Dyslexia Midterm Flashcards
Special Topics Class Fall 2024
Congenital word blindness
the inability to store the visual images of words in memory
Strephosymbolia
the twisting of symbols
-related to the cremyth of Dyslexia being a visual problem
Nonword reading deficit
a characteristic of children with dyslexia and other reading disorders, and is considered evidence of a phonological impairment. (poor decoding skills)
Nonwords, also known as nonsense words or pseudowords, are letter sequences that follow phonetic rules but have no meaning.
-Researchers use nonwords to assess a person’s ability to decode phonetics
Word attack skill
=your ability to read non-words
strategies that help students learn to decode, pronounce, and understand unfamiliar words
-can help students break down words into parts or approach them from a different angle
-ex: sounding out, looking for familiar chunks, word patterns, word families
Decoding
translating printed symbols into pronunciations
-requires mapping across modalities from vision (written forms) to audition (spoken sounds)
Phoneme
the smallest sounds that differentiate words
Ex: ‘pit’ and ‘bit’ differ by a single phoneme [b]-[p]
Grapheme
written symbol that represents a sound
-this can be a single letter, or could be a sequence of letters, such as ai, sh, igh, tch etc.
-ex: when a child says the sound /t/ this is a phoneme, but when they write the letter ‘t’ this is a grapheme
Garden variety poor reader
=poor readers with average to lower IQ
=someone who has general difficulties with reading comprehension and word-reading
-most common reading problem in schools. It can be caused by a number of factors, including: Limited home experiences with literacy, English language learning, and a learning disability
Attention deficit disorder
is a developmental disorder marked by persistent symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development
Co-morbidity
= when individuals have two-occurring disorders, we refer them as comorbid for these disorders
-used by dyslexia researchers to denote that neurodevelopmental disorders co-occur
Symptomatology
the study of a disease’s signs and symptoms, or the range of symptoms a person exhibits
Dimensionality
on a continuous dimension
-reading skills are on a continuous distribution
the quality of having many different features or qualities, especially in a way that makes something seem real, rather than being too simple
Learning styles
different methods of learning or understanding new information, the way a person takes in, understand, expresses and remembers information
Discrepancy
a lack of compatibility or similarity between two or more facts
-Synonym: inconsistency
Phonological awareness
to assess the ability to segment and/or manipulate the phonemic structure of words
Specific language impairment
a communication disorder that interferes with the development of language skills in children
-doesn’t have a sensory deficit
Prevalence
the proportion of a population that has a specific characteristic or condition during a given time period
Heritability
an estimate of the amount of variability in a trait which is attributable to genetic variation
-the higher the heritability, the more substantial the genetic contribution to that trait
Neuromyth
misconceptions about brain research and its application to education and learning
Previous research has shown that these myths may be quite pervasive among educators, but less is known about how these rates compare to the general public or to individuals who have more exposure to neuroscience
Alphabetic principle
Letters and sounds are related
-the understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds
Stroop task
a cognitive control task that measures a person’s ability to inhibit automatic responses and selectively pay attention
This Stroop effect shows how after one learns to read words, word recognition becomes automatic, slowed down by the process when doing the Stroop task
Triangle model
a cognitive model that represents the three key components of reading as interconnected vertices of a triangle: orthography (spelling), phonology (sound), and semantics (meaning)
1.Orthography <=> phonology
2.Orthography <=> semantics
Specific comprehension difficulty
a condition that makes it difficult for someone to understand written text, even if they have average or above-average decoding skills
-may have trouble with: Word comprehension, Written expression, School assignments that involve reading or writing, and Spoken language in some cases
-Dyslexia: affects decoding vs. S-RCD: affects understanding
Dyslexia
a language-based learning disability that refers to a cluster of symptoms, which result in people having difficulties with specific language skills, particularly reading and writing
Rapid automatized naming (RAN)
task that measures how quickly someone can name a series of familiar items, such as letters, numbers, colors, or objects
-often used to assess reading skills and identify children at risk for reading problems; assess verbal processing speed
Division of labor
Prior to reading, children have P>S
In learning to read words children must establish O>P>S
As children become familiar with words O>S dominates
(Typical children have this division of labor ^)
Due to phonological processing deficits (O>P pathway is less available), children with Dyslexia rely almost exclusively on the O> semantics pathway for both unfamiliar and familiar words which is due to its arbitrary mappings slows word reading development and doesn’t support development of the O>P pathway, thus little division of labor
In Word Reading as a Division of Labor, what does O, P, and S stand for along with the meaning
Otrthography (writing/spelling system)
Phonology (sounds of words)
Semantics (meanings of words)
IDA definition of Dyslexia
A specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.
Common characteristics of Dyslexia defined by IDA: Oral language
-late learning to talk
-difficulty pronouncing words
-difficulty acquiring vocabulary or using age appropriate grammar
-difficulty following directions
-confusion with before/after, right/left, etc.
-difficulty learning the alphabet, nursery rhymes, or songs
-difficulty understanding concepts and relationships
-difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems
Common Characteristics of Dyslexia
-poor language skills
-poor attention & executive function
-anxiety and prosocial behavior
-comorbidity with poor math skills
Describe the Triangle Model of Reading
-Seidenberg & McClelland; stimulates the process of reading development
-It creates connections not only between phonological and orthographic (printed word) units but also with the meanings of words (morphemes) via a semantic pathway
-Initial focus on connection btw phonology & orthography and later to more direct connections btw orthography and meaning
Describe the division of labor in word reading using the Triangle Model
prior to reading, children had phonology–>semantic reactions, in learning words a child must establist the O–>P–>S (will not work if child does not know the word), once children become familiar with words O–>S dominates
Describe the simple view of reading
simple view of reading states that reading comprehension is the product of two sets of skills: decoding and linguistic comprehension
Reading Comprehension = Decoding (reading) + Linguistic Comprehension (knowing meaning)
Predicted by the simple view, identify the 4 subtypes of readers
-Typical reader
-Dyslexia
-Mixed Difficulties
-Specific Comprehension Difficulties
Simple view of Reading: Typical Reader
good at word reading and comprehension
Simple view of Reading: Dyslexia
good at linguistic comprehension but poor at word reading
-need help learning to read words to improve reading comprehension skills
Simple view of Reading: Mixed Difficulties
poor in linguistic comprehension and word reading
-need help with both word reading skills and language processing to improve reading comprehension
Simple view of Reading: Specific Comprehension Difficulties
poor at linguistic comprehension but good at word reading
-need help with language processing to improve reading comprehension skill
Describe what an IQ-discrepancy definition of dyslexia entails and the problem such a system entails
A student with significant academic delays would be administered a battery of tests
If the student had a ‘severe discrepency’ [gap] between IQ and achievement, he or she would be diagnosed with a Learning Disability
-made to where must have 1 standard deviation difference (ex: 1std= 15pts)
-demonstrates unexpected by the group
Describe the two-group system for classifying dyslexia and the criteria needed to establish its validity
poor readers with high IQ (dyslexia) and poor readers with average to lower IQ (garden variety poor readers)
For this distinction to be valid one of the following group differences must be true:
* Reliable differences exist between groups on
academic measures or cognitive processes
* Differences in response to
instruction/intervention
* Differences in prognosis
–> there is NO EVIDENCE supporting these
3 criteria (all 3 must be true and they aren’t, hence INVALID)
Describe the frameworks for understanding the different factors that may influence children’s academic outcomes over time.
The guiding principle behind this framework (level-of-analysis framework) is that a complete explanation of any disorder- or indeed, of any typical developmental phenomenon- requires understanding the phenomenon across multiple levels: its defining symptoms or behaviors; its neuropsychology (underlying cognitive, emotional, or other psychological processes that are not directly observable and not part of the disorder’s definition); its pathophysiology (for cognitive disorders, changes in brain structure and function); its etiology, or distal causes, including genetic and environmental risk and protective factors; and its social context
-Neurobiology (genetic factors, Brain structure and function)
->Core cognitive processes (phonemic awareness) v^
->Behavioral/psychosocial factors (e.g., attention, anxiety, motivation)
->Environment (socioeconomic, schooling, and instruction)
=> Academic Skill Deficits (word recognition)
Describe an argument for why we should consider dyslexia a continuous disorder.
There is no normal distributions and it is arbitrary
Describe why dyslexia prevalence estimates can range from a low of 3% to a high of 25%.
normal distribution, no set cut point of what is and what is not dyslexia (continum)
Arbitrary cut off (personal definitions differ)
Correlational Model of Comorbidity between reading skill and creativity in individuals with dyslexia
Under the correlated liabilities model, the liability factors are correlated at some level (i.e., 0<r<1) and comorbid cases reflect the correlation between these liabilities
As correlation increases, the chance of comorbidity increases
you have a chance at being creative but a higher probability for being lower on creativity if you have dyslexia because creativity and writing are correlated–> correlation between reading and creativity is positive in the general population
Causal Model of Comorbidity between reading skill and creativity in individuals with dyslexia
In directional causation models, one disorde4r causes the other
Differ from the associated liabilities model in that comorbidity results not from the nature or expression of liability patterns, but rather from the direct influence of one disorder on another
population based; will be a common set of underlying cognitive skills, poor reading results in increased creativity
Chance Model of Comorbidity between reading skill and creativity in individuals with dyslexia
Under the chance model, the liability factors are uncorrelated (i.e., r=0), and comorbid cases occur purely by chance
individual based; will NOT be a common set of underlying skills, there is NO correlation between reading and creativity in the general population
Describe the relationship between reading skill and creativity in individuals with dyslexia.
Dyslexia- a phonologically-based reading and spelling disorder
Creativity- the use of imagination or original ideas
Selecting a sample for dyslexia results in a sample that also have high creative ability (SvsW within the individual)
Selecting on a sample for Dyslexia results in a sample that falls along the distribution of creative ability (within Individual)
A question of co-morbidity
Describe the self-teaching hypothesis as it applies to early word development.
When you can sound words out, you can be self-teachers, as long as you know what the word is
Triangle model (phonology section)
-division of labor
-Orthography -> phonology-> semantics
(repeated exposure helps build a more direct connection)
-Once they know the word to semantics they don’t have to teach themselves anymore
Explain the Phonological Deficit Hypothesis of dyslexia
people with dyslexia have specific problems in representing or recalling those sounds–hence problems with mapping them onto letters
The theory is supported by observations that people with dyslexia have difficulty retaining speech in short-term memory, and consciously segmenting it into phonemes
ex: deleting or substituting phonemes from words
–> ALL CHILDREN WITH DYSLEXIA HAVE PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING PROBLEMS BUT NOT ALL CHILDREN WITH PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING PROBLEMS HAVE DYSLEXIA
Explain why “a single phonological deficit is not necessary or sufficient
All children with dyslexia have phonological processing problems but not all children with phonological processing problems have dyslexia
What are the various levels of scientific evidence.
Least to most:
Personal experience with an individual (antidotal)
-work for me so should work for you
Expert opinions
Studies where there is correlation between the state (dyslexia) and cognitive correlate (phonological processing)
-high correlation between word reading
group comparisons (chronological age matched comparisons, reading age matched comparisons)
-select groups and look at differences across them; can’t infer cause from them
Quasi-experimental (not randomly assigned by treatment group is closely matched with control on key variables)
-haven’t randomized (no control of outside variables)
Experimental (randomly assigned treatment and control)
What are the various neuromyths associated with dyslexia
“A common sign of Dyslexia is seeing letters backwards”
“Dyslexia is a gift”
Describe the Stoops task and what it tells us about reading skill.
a cognitive control task that measures a person’s ability to inhibit automatic responses and selectively pay attention
-automatized reading speed
-John Ridley Stroop
-phenomenon demonstrates that it is difficult to name the ink color of a color word if there is a mismatch between ink color and word. (ex: the word GREEN printed in red ink)
-Those with Dyslexia perform worse
Describe how the definitions of dyslexia and high blood pressure (hypertension) are similar
There is no precise cut-off between high blood pressure and ‘normal’ blood pressure, but if high blood pressure remains untreated, the risk of complications is high. Hence, a diagnosis of ‘hypertension’ is warranted
-no agreed cut-off criteria
-normal distribution, arbitrary cut off
