Dyslexia Midterm

Question 1

Congenital word blindness

Answer 1

the inability to store the visual images of words in memory

Question 2

Strephosymbolia

Answer 2

the twisting of symbols
-related to the cremyth of Dyslexia being a visual problem

Question 3

Nonword reading deficit

Answer 3

a characteristic of children with dyslexia and other reading disorders, and is considered evidence of a phonological impairment. (poor decoding skills)

Nonwords, also known as nonsense words or pseudowords, are letter sequences that follow phonetic rules but have no meaning.
-Researchers use nonwords to assess a person’s ability to decode phonetics

Question 4

Word attack skill

Answer 4

=your ability to read non-words
strategies that help students learn to decode, pronounce, and understand unfamiliar words
-can help students break down words into parts or approach them from a different angle
-ex: sounding out, looking for familiar chunks, word patterns, word families

Question 5

Decoding

Answer 5

translating printed symbols into pronunciations
-requires mapping across modalities from vision (written forms) to audition (spoken sounds)

Question 6

Phoneme

Answer 6

the smallest sounds that differentiate words

Ex: ‘pit’ and ‘bit’ differ by a single phoneme [b]-[p]

Question 7

Grapheme

Answer 7

written symbol that represents a sound
-this can be a single letter, or could be a sequence of letters, such as ai, sh, igh, tch etc.
-ex: when a child says the sound /t/ this is a phoneme, but when they write the letter ‘t’ this is a grapheme

Question 8

Garden variety poor reader

Answer 8

=poor readers with average to lower IQ
=someone who has general difficulties with reading comprehension and word-reading
-most common reading problem in schools. It can be caused by a number of factors, including: Limited home experiences with literacy, English language learning, and a learning disability

Question 9

Attention deficit disorder

Answer 9

is a developmental disorder marked by persistent symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development

Question 10

Co-morbidity

Answer 10

= when individuals have two-occurring disorders, we refer them as comorbid for these disorders
-used by dyslexia researchers to denote that neurodevelopmental disorders co-occur

Question 11

Symptomatology

Answer 11

the study of a disease’s signs and symptoms, or the range of symptoms a person exhibits

Question 12

Dimensionality

Answer 12

on a continuous dimension
-reading skills are on a continuous distribution

the quality of having many different features or qualities, especially in a way that makes something seem real, rather than being too simple

Question 13

Learning styles

Answer 13

different methods of learning or understanding new information, the way a person takes in, understand, expresses and remembers information

Question 14

Discrepancy

Answer 14

a lack of compatibility or similarity between two or more facts
-Synonym: inconsistency

Question 15

Phonological awareness

Answer 15

to assess the ability to segment and/or manipulate the phonemic structure of words

Question 16

Specific language impairment

Answer 16

a communication disorder that interferes with the development of language skills in children
-doesn’t have a sensory deficit

Question 17

Prevalence

Answer 17

the proportion of a population that has a specific characteristic or condition during a given time period

Question 18

Heritability

Answer 18

an estimate of the amount of variability in a trait which is attributable to genetic variation
-the higher the heritability, the more substantial the genetic contribution to that trait

Question 19

Neuromyth

Answer 19

misconceptions about brain research and its application to education and learning
Previous research has shown that these myths may be quite pervasive among educators, but less is known about how these rates compare to the general public or to individuals who have more exposure to neuroscience

Question 20

Alphabetic principle

Answer 20

Letters and sounds are related
-the understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds

Question 21

Stroop task

Answer 21

a cognitive control task that measures a person’s ability to inhibit automatic responses and selectively pay attention
This Stroop effect shows how after one learns to read words, word recognition becomes automatic, slowed down by the process when doing the Stroop task

Question 22

Triangle model

Answer 22

a cognitive model that represents the three key components of reading as interconnected vertices of a triangle: orthography (spelling), phonology (sound), and semantics (meaning)
1.Orthography <=> phonology
2.Orthography <=> semantics

Question 23

Specific comprehension difficulty

Answer 23

a condition that makes it difficult for someone to understand written text, even if they have average or above-average decoding skills
-may have trouble with: Word comprehension, Written expression, School assignments that involve reading or writing, and Spoken language in some cases
-Dyslexia: affects decoding vs. S-RCD: affects understanding

Question 24

Dyslexia

Answer 24

a language-based learning disability that refers to a cluster of symptoms, which result in people having difficulties with specific language skills, particularly reading and writing

Question 25

Rapid automatized naming (RAN)

Answer 25

task that measures how quickly someone can name a series of familiar items, such as letters, numbers, colors, or objects
-often used to assess reading skills and identify children at risk for reading problems; assess verbal processing speed

Question 26

Division of labor

Answer 26

Prior to reading, children have P>S
In learning to read words children must establish O>P>S
As children become familiar with words O>S dominates
(Typical children have this division of labor ^)

Due to phonological processing deficits (O>P pathway is less available), children with Dyslexia rely almost exclusively on the O> semantics pathway for both unfamiliar and familiar words which is due to its arbitrary mappings slows word reading development and doesn’t support development of the O>P pathway, thus little division of labor

Question 27

In Word Reading as a Division of Labor, what does O, P, and S stand for along with the meaning

Answer 27

Otrthography (writing/spelling system)
Phonology (sounds of words)
Semantics (meanings of words)

Question 28

IDA definition of Dyslexia

Answer 28

A specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.

Question 29

Common characteristics of Dyslexia defined by IDA: Oral language

Answer 29

-late learning to talk
-difficulty pronouncing words
-difficulty acquiring vocabulary or using age appropriate grammar
-difficulty following directions
-confusion with before/after, right/left, etc.
-difficulty learning the alphabet, nursery rhymes, or songs
-difficulty understanding concepts and relationships
-difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems

Question 30

Common Characteristics of Dyslexia

Answer 30

-poor language skills
-poor attention & executive function
-anxiety and prosocial behavior
-comorbidity with poor math skills

Question 31

Describe the Triangle Model of Reading

Answer 31

-Seidenberg & McClelland; stimulates the process of reading development
-It creates connections not only between phonological and orthographic (printed word) units but also with the meanings of words (morphemes) via a semantic pathway
-Initial focus on connection btw phonology & orthography and later to more direct connections btw orthography and meaning

Question 32

Describe the division of labor in word reading using the Triangle Model

Answer 32

prior to reading, children had phonology–>semantic reactions, in learning words a child must establist the O–>P–>S (will not work if child does not know the word), once children become familiar with words O–>S dominates

Question 33

Describe the simple view of reading

Answer 33

simple view of reading states that reading comprehension is the product of two sets of skills: decoding and linguistic comprehension
Reading Comprehension = Decoding (reading) + Linguistic Comprehension (knowing meaning)

Question 34

Predicted by the simple view, identify the 4 subtypes of readers

Answer 34

-Typical reader
-Dyslexia
-Mixed Difficulties
-Specific Comprehension Difficulties

Question 35

Simple view of Reading: Typical Reader

Answer 35

good at word reading and comprehension

Question 36

Simple view of Reading: Dyslexia

Answer 36

good at linguistic comprehension but poor at word reading
-need help learning to read words to improve reading comprehension skills

Question 37

Simple view of Reading: Mixed Difficulties

Answer 37

poor in linguistic comprehension and word reading
-need help with both word reading skills and language processing to improve reading comprehension

Question 38

Simple view of Reading: Specific Comprehension Difficulties

Answer 38

poor at linguistic comprehension but good at word reading
-need help with language processing to improve reading comprehension skill

Question 39

Describe what an IQ-discrepancy definition of dyslexia entails and the problem such a system entails

Answer 39

A student with significant academic delays would be administered a battery of tests
If the student had a ‘severe discrepency’ [gap] between IQ and achievement, he or she would be diagnosed with a Learning Disability
-made to where must have 1 standard deviation difference (ex: 1std= 15pts)
-demonstrates unexpected by the group

Question 40

Describe the two-group system for classifying dyslexia and the criteria needed to establish its validity

Answer 40

poor readers with high IQ (dyslexia) and poor readers with average to lower IQ (garden variety poor readers)
For this distinction to be valid one of the following group differences must be true:
* Reliable differences exist between groups on
academic measures or cognitive processes
* Differences in response to
instruction/intervention
* Differences in prognosis
–> there is NO EVIDENCE supporting these
3 criteria (all 3 must be true and they aren’t, hence INVALID)

Question 41

Describe the frameworks for understanding the different factors that may influence children’s academic outcomes over time.

Answer 41

The guiding principle behind this framework (level-of-analysis framework) is that a complete explanation of any disorder- or indeed, of any typical developmental phenomenon- requires understanding the phenomenon across multiple levels: its defining symptoms or behaviors; its neuropsychology (underlying cognitive, emotional, or other psychological processes that are not directly observable and not part of the disorder’s definition); its pathophysiology (for cognitive disorders, changes in brain structure and function); its etiology, or distal causes, including genetic and environmental risk and protective factors; and its social context
-Neurobiology (genetic factors, Brain structure and function)
->Core cognitive processes (phonemic awareness) v^
->Behavioral/psychosocial factors (e.g., attention, anxiety, motivation)
->Environment (socioeconomic, schooling, and instruction)
=> Academic Skill Deficits (word recognition)

Question 42

Describe an argument for why we should consider dyslexia a continuous disorder.

Answer 42

There is no normal distributions and it is arbitrary

Question 43

Describe why dyslexia prevalence estimates can range from a low of 3% to a high of 25%.

Answer 43

normal distribution, no set cut point of what is and what is not dyslexia (continum)
Arbitrary cut off (personal definitions differ)

Question 44

Correlational Model of Comorbidity between reading skill and creativity in individuals with dyslexia

Answer 44

Under the correlated liabilities model, the liability factors are correlated at some level (i.e., 0<r<1) and comorbid cases reflect the correlation between these liabilities
As correlation increases, the chance of comorbidity increases
you have a chance at being creative but a higher probability for being lower on creativity if you have dyslexia because creativity and writing are correlated–> correlation between reading and creativity is positive in the general population

Question 45

Causal Model of Comorbidity between reading skill and creativity in individuals with dyslexia

Answer 45

In directional causation models, one disorde4r causes the other
Differ from the associated liabilities model in that comorbidity results not from the nature or expression of liability patterns, but rather from the direct influence of one disorder on another
population based; will be a common set of underlying cognitive skills, poor reading results in increased creativity

Question 46

Chance Model of Comorbidity between reading skill and creativity in individuals with dyslexia

Answer 46

Under the chance model, the liability factors are uncorrelated (i.e., r=0), and comorbid cases occur purely by chance
individual based; will NOT be a common set of underlying skills, there is NO correlation between reading and creativity in the general population

Question 47

Describe the relationship between reading skill and creativity in individuals with dyslexia.

Answer 47

Dyslexia- a phonologically-based reading and spelling disorder
Creativity- the use of imagination or original ideas
Selecting a sample for dyslexia results in a sample that also have high creative ability (SvsW within the individual)
Selecting on a sample for Dyslexia results in a sample that falls along the distribution of creative ability (within Individual)
A question of co-morbidity

Question 48

Describe the self-teaching hypothesis as it applies to early word development.

Answer 48

When you can sound words out, you can be self-teachers, as long as you know what the word is
Triangle model (phonology section)
-division of labor
-Orthography -> phonology-> semantics
(repeated exposure helps build a more direct connection)
-Once they know the word to semantics they don’t have to teach themselves anymore

Question 49

Explain the Phonological Deficit Hypothesis of dyslexia

Answer 49

people with dyslexia have specific problems in representing or recalling those sounds–hence problems with mapping them onto letters
The theory is supported by observations that people with dyslexia have difficulty retaining speech in short-term memory, and consciously segmenting it into phonemes
ex: deleting or substituting phonemes from words
–> ALL CHILDREN WITH DYSLEXIA HAVE PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING PROBLEMS BUT NOT ALL CHILDREN WITH PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING PROBLEMS HAVE DYSLEXIA

Question 50

Explain why “a single phonological deficit is not necessary or sufficient

Answer 50

All children with dyslexia have phonological processing problems but not all children with phonological processing problems have dyslexia

Question 51

What are the various levels of scientific evidence.

Answer 51

Least to most:
Personal experience with an individual (antidotal)
-work for me so should work for you
Expert opinions
Studies where there is correlation between the state (dyslexia) and cognitive correlate (phonological processing)
-high correlation between word reading

group comparisons (chronological age matched comparisons, reading age matched comparisons)
-select groups and look at differences across them; can’t infer cause from them
Quasi-experimental (not randomly assigned by treatment group is closely matched with control on key variables)
-haven’t randomized (no control of outside variables)
Experimental (randomly assigned treatment and control)

Question 52

What are the various neuromyths associated with dyslexia

Answer 52

“A common sign of Dyslexia is seeing letters backwards”
“Dyslexia is a gift”

Question 53

Describe the Stoops task and what it tells us about reading skill.

Answer 53

a cognitive control task that measures a person’s ability to inhibit automatic responses and selectively pay attention
-automatized reading speed
-John Ridley Stroop
-phenomenon demonstrates that it is difficult to name the ink color of a color word if there is a mismatch between ink color and word. (ex: the word GREEN printed in red ink)
-Those with Dyslexia perform worse

Question 54

Describe how the definitions of dyslexia and high blood pressure (hypertension) are similar

Answer 54

There is no precise cut-off between high blood pressure and ‘normal’ blood pressure, but if high blood pressure remains untreated, the risk of complications is high. Hence, a diagnosis of ‘hypertension’ is warranted

-no agreed cut-off criteria
-normal distribution, arbitrary cut off