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Biol 1407 SPC > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Ch 41- Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients

What do they do?
What do they Include?
Do they need specific nutrients among species?

A
  • Preassemble organic molecules
    ( nutshell: we don’t synthesize them)
  • Amino Acids, Fatty acids, Vitamins, Minerals
  • Yes, specific nutrients vary among species
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2
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [AA]

How many Amino Acids do we require?
What do most enzymes do?

What are remaining energy called & where is required?

A

Require 20 AA
- Most enzymes synthesize half of AA

Remaining energy is called essential AA
- Must be obtained from food in prefabricated forms

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3
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [AA]

What food provide “Complete” ( provide all AA) ?

A
  • Meat
  • Eggs
  • Cheese

[ animal products ]

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4
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [AA]

What food provide “Incomplete”?

A

Plant products

If taken, you have to consume wider variety

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5
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [ Fatty Acids ]

What do fatty acids do?

Difference from animals?

A

Fatty acids => synthesize cellular components

Animals can synthesize but lack enzymes to form double bonds found in certain required fatty acids

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6
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [Fatty Acids]

What is the name of the essential fatty acid for mammals and where can it be obtained?

A

Linoleic Acid

Can be obtained from:
- Seeds
- Grains
- Vegetables

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7
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [Vitamins]

Do organic molecules require the diet to be in very small amounts?

A

Yes

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8
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [Vitamins]

Name Diverse Functions & Where Found:

  • B2 (Riboflavin)
  • B7 (Biotin)
    -B9 (Folic Acid)
  • A (Retinol)
  • D
A
  • B2 (Riboflavin)
    => components of coenzyme FAD (e- carrier in cellular respiration pathway)
    => Diary/ Meat
  • B7 (Biotin)
    => Coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, & AA
    => Legumes
  • B9 (Folic Acid)
    => Coenzyme in Nucleic Acid & AA Metabolism ( break down to small components) [ build new things ]
    => Veg, oranges, nuts
  • A (Retinol)
    => component of visual pigments; maintenance of epithelial cells
    => Dark, leafy greens
  • D
    => Absorption of calcium and phosphorus
    => Egg Yolks
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9
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [Minerals]

Are they inorganic or organic?

Are they required in small amounts?

A

Minerals are inorganic that they are required in small amounts

Ex. Iron & Sulfur

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10
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [Minerals]

Diverse Functions in Animal Physiology
- Calcium (Ca)
- Potassium (K)
- Magnesium (Mg)
- Iron (Fe)
- Iodine (I)

A
  • Calcium (Ca)
    => Bone and tooth formation
    => Blood clotting
    => Nerve and Muscle Function
  • Potassium (K)
    => Acid Base Balance
    => Water Balance
    => Nerve Function
  • Magnesium (Mg)
    => ATP bioenergetics
  • Iron (Fe)
    => Component of hemoglobin and of electron carriers
  • Iodine (I)
    => component of thyroid hormones
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11
Q

Animal Nutrition

Essential Nutrients [ Diseases ]

Iodine Deficiencies can lead to ________?

Excess salt can lead to _________?

A
  • Lead to Goiter ( swelling of thyroid gland)
  • Can lead to high blood pressures
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12
Q

Animal Nutrition
Regulation of Digestion

Are Digestive Systems continually active?

A
  • Digestive systems are not continually active
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13
Q

Animal Nutrition
Regulation of Digestion

What are def: ?

Enteric Division?

Endocrine System?

A

Enteric Division:
=> Nervous system that regulates churning, release of gastric juices, and peristalsis

Endocrine System:
=> Hormones released by stomach and duodenum ensure digestive secretions are present only when needed

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14
Q

Animal Nutrition
Food Processing

What are the 4 steps of Food Processing?

A
  • Ingestion
  • Digestion
  • Absorption
  • Elimination
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15
Q

Animal Nutrition
Food Processing

Def of Ingestion

A

Act of eating or feeding

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16
Q

Animal Nutrition
Food Processing

Def of Digestion

2 Types of Digestion & Functions

A

Food is broken down into molecules small enough for body to absorb

  • Mechanical Digestion: Mouth (physically chew )
  • Chemical Digestion: Hydrolysis (enzymes coming in & break cmplx molec dwon to small molec
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17
Q

Animal Nutrition
Food Processing

Def of Absorption

A

Cells take up small molecules

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18
Q

Animal Nutrition
Food Processing

Def of Elimination

A

Undigested materials pass out of the digestive system

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19
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

What are accessory glands, what do they do, and which are they?

A
  • Secrete digestive juices thru ducts into canal
  • They consist
    => 3 pairs of salivary glands
    => Pancreas
    =>Liver
    =>Gallbladder
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20
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

What contraction of ring- like muscles help push food thru alimentary canal?

A

Peristalsis ( Esophagus)

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21
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

What regulate passage of materials b/w compartments & is muscular layer forms ringlike valves

A

Sphincters

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22
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

1st Step in digestion?

A
  • Oral Cavity (Ingestion)
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23
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

What does 1st step in digestion do?
Do any other glands help?

A
  • Mechanical digestion by teeth
  • Salivary Glands (Access gland) deliver saliva automatically
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24
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Enzymes (-ase) secreted in oral cavity

A
  • Amylase = hydrolyzes starch & glycogen into smaller polysaccharides & maltose
  • Mucus = protects oral cavity, mixture of water, salts, cells and slippery glycoproteins (mucins)
    = Lubricates food, easier swallowing
  • Buffers = prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acid
  • Antimicrobial agents = protect against bacteria
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24
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Function of Oral Cavity, Pharynx, & Esophagus

Tongue using _____ to manipulate mixture of food and saliva into a ball.

2 passageways in pharynx?

What does Epiglottis do?

A
  • Bolus
  • Trachea & Esophagus
  • Epiglottis prevents food from entering the trachea
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25
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Stomach
What does it do?
What does it secrete and forms what?
Involuntary or voluntary muscle?

A
  • Stores food and begins digestion of proteins
  • Elastic wall w/ multiple folds
  • Secretes digestive fluid called gastric juice
    => mixes food via churning action forming chyme
  • involuntary (smooth muscle)
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26
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Stomach
What does Gastric Juices contain?

A
  • HCL (Hydrochloric Acid): disrupts extracellular matrix that bind cells together in meat and plant material
  • Pepsin: (protease) breaks proteins into smaller polypeptides
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27
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Why don’t HCL and pepsin eat thru lining of stomach?

A
  • Mucus prevents self- digestion
  • new layer of epithelial cells added every 3 days
  • Damaged areas result in Gastric Ulcers
  • Acid Reflux is backflow of chyme (throwing up)
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28
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Accessory Organs

What do they do? What do they contain?
- Pancreas
- Liver

A
  • Pancreas
    = Produces alkaline soln rich in bicarbonate and several enzymes (trypsin & chymotrypsin)
    = Bicarbonate neutralizes acidity of chyme and acts a buffer
  • Liver
    = Bile aids in emulsification (large droplets to small lead to absorption & process to body) of fats and other lipids
    =STORES AND CONCENTRATED in gallbladder
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29
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Small Intestine

What occurs most in Small Intestine?
What does it do?

A

Most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules

  • chyme enters duodenum, mixes w/ digestive juices
  • Site of MOST Digestion
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30
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Small Intestine Absorption

Where does it occur?
What helps contribute absorption?

A

Occurs in Jejunum (2nd smi) and Ileum (3rd smi)

  • Villi (fingerlike projecting lining intestine)
  • Microvilli (cover surface ) (increase surface area)
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31
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Distribution of Nutrients

What do they do & functions

A

Capillaries and veins carry nutrient-rich blood away from villi and join with hepatic portal vein (leading to liver)
- blood travels to heart and other organs & tissues)

Function:
- Liver regulates distribution of nutrients to rest of body
- Allows liver to remove toxic substances
- Store energy rich molecules
- Storage spot for mineral

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32
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Large Intestine

What do they do & Function?

A

Colon lead to rectum & anus (reabsorption of water )

  • Cecum
    = important for fermenting ingested material (esp animals that eat primarily plant tissue)
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33
Q

Animal Nutrition
Organs of Mammal Digestive System

Def of Diarrhea & Constipation

A

Diarrhea :
lining becomes irritated and LESS WATER than normal is reabsorbed (cannot absorb water)

Constipation :
Feces move along colon too SLOWLY and comes compacted (TOO MUCH WATER ABSORB)

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34
Q

Animal Nutrition
Digestive compartments

Intracellular Digestion

A

Occurs in lysosomes
Unicellular organism (sponges, amoeba)

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35
Q

Animal Nutrition
Digestive compartments

Extracellular Digestion

A

Breakdown of food that are continuous w/ outside of animal’s body

mouth to anus

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36
Q

Animal Nutrition
Digestive compartments

Simple body plans (def)

Gastrovascular Cavity

A

Simple BP: digestive compartment w/ single opening

Gastro cavity: functions in digestion and distribution of nutrients thruout body (hydras & flatworms)

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37
Q

Animal Nutrition
Digestive compartments

complete digestive tract ( 2 opening)

Another name called?
Function?

A

Alimentary Canal

  • Food moves in single direction in stepwise fashion
  • organized into specialized compartments w/ specific function
  • Allows animals to ingest food while earlier meals still being digested
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38
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Open vs Closed Circulatory Systems

A

Open Circulatory System
= Circulating Fluid: hemolymph & interstitial fluid that bathes body cells

Closed Circulatory System
= Blood confined to vessels and distinct from interstitial fluid

39
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Structure & Function of 3 vessel Types:

  • Arteries
  • Veins
  • Capillaries
A

Arteries (thick walls) (high hydrostatic pressure)
> Carry blood AWAY from heart
> w/in organs - branch into arterioles - later branch to capillaries

Veins (Drain tissue)
> Carry blood back TO the heart
> Connect to Venules that collect fluid from capillaries

Capillaries (Thin/Leaky)
> Microscopic vessels w/ very thin, porous walls
> networks are called capillary beds
> ONLY VESSEL WHERE EXCHANGE OCCURS

40
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Circulation of blood through heart:
Compare single vs double circulation

A

Single Circulation : Bony fishes, rays, sharks
> two chambered hearts (atrium and ventricle)
> Act of swimming = aid in circulation

Double Circulation : amphibians, reptiles, mammals
> Two circuits
- Pulmonary circuit (right side)
- Systemic circuit (left side)

41
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Circulation of blood through heart:
Compare Circulation in Mammals, fish, & Amphibian

A

Amphibian: 3 chambers : Pulmocutaneous Circuit

Mammal : 4 chambers : Pulmonary Circuit

Fish: single Circulation : Gill capillaries :

42
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Components of Blood

Plasma: Main function

A

water- 90%
Function: solvent

ion
Function: pH buffering

Plasma Proteins; immunoglobulin (antibodies)
Function: Defense
Apoliproteins: Lipid Transport

43
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

components of Blood

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
Function?
Lack?
Contain?

A
  • Function: transport O2
  • lack nuclei and mitocondria (generate ATP by anaerobic metabolism)
  • Contain hemoglobin (iron containing protein that binds O2)

Have 4 subunits
2 alpha subunits & 2 Beta subunits

44
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

components of Blood

Leukocytes (fight infection)
Function?

A

Function: Defense and Immunity; Fight injection

some phagocytic

45
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

components of blood

Platelets (bone marrow/ blood clotting)
Contain?
Function?
What do they need?

A

Contain no nuclei
They are pinched of cytoplasmic fragments of specialized bone marrow

Function: blood clotting

Need: plasma, Enzymatic cascade, prothrombin, thrombin, fibrinogen, fibrin

Pos= high thrombin

46
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Structure and Function of Heart

Chambers - atria and ventricles

A

Atria: Thin walled and serve as collection chambers

Ventricles: Thick walled and contract more forcefully

47
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Structure and Function of Heart

Valves (4)

A

Function: prevent backflow
Made of connective tissue

Atrioventricular (AV) Valve- b/w R atrium & R ventricle

Semilunar Valve: 2 exits of heart (pulmonic & aortic)
Pulmonary artery: leaves R ventricle
Aortic: Leaves L Ventricle

48
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Structure and Function of Heart

Nerves that regulate heart rate

Sympathetic Division: acts accelerator

Parasympathetic Division: acts as brakes

A

Sinoatrial (SA) node: sets rate & timing which all cardiac muscles cells contract

Atrioventricular (AV) node: signals travel to relay point (b/w atria)

Bundle Branches: pass signals to heart apex

Signals spread thruout ventricles (Purkinje fibers)

49
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces

a. Understand structure & function of respiratory surfaces discussed in diff animal groups
b. Where does gas exchange occur in each system

CUTANEOUS RESPIRATION

A

Earthworms and some amphibians

Respiration across skin
- Dense network of capillaries below skin facilitate the exchange of gases

Evolutionary soln?
Modifications that increase surface area

50
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces

a. Understand structure & function of respiratory surfaces discussed in diff animal groups
b. Where does gas exchange occur in each system

GILLS IN AQUATIC ANIMALS

A
  • Total surface area much greater than rest of body’s surface
  • VENTILATION: movement of water over gills
  • Mechanisms of VENTILATION
    = Walking (ventilation; attach to gills)
    = Swimming ( water to actively flow over gills)

Bony fishes = operculum (protect/ ventilate)

51
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces

a. Understand structure & function of respiratory surfaces discussed in diff animal groups
b. Where does gas exchange occur in each system

COUNTERCURRENT EXCHANGE

A
  • Exchange b/w two fluid flowing in opp directions
  • blood flows in opp direction to water passing over gills
52
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces

a. Understand structure & function of respiratory surfaces discussed in diff animal groups
b. Where does gas exchange occur in each system

TRACHEAL SYSTEM IN INSECTS

A

INSECTS - open circulatory system

TRACHEAL SYSTEM: terrestrial animals

  • Functions w/o circulatory system
  • TRACHEAE= network of air tubes that branch throughout the body
53
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces

a. Understand structure & function of respiratory surfaces discussed in diff animal groups
b. Where does gas exchange occur in each system

LUNGS

A

SPIDERS & LAND SNAILS, VERTEBRATES

Infolding, subdivided into numerous pockets

not in direct contact w/ parts of body, must be bridged by circulatory system

54
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Pathway that air moves during inhalation & exhalation in mammals
HOW IS THIS ACCOMPLISHED?

neg pressure breathing: air pulled into lungs
Diaphragm: sheet of skeletal muscle

A

Air entering nostrils
- filter by hairs, warmed, humidified, sampled for odors

Air flow: pharynx, larynx, trachea

Gas exchange in alveoli

55
Q

Ch 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Pathway that air moves during inhalation & exhalation in mammals

What controls respiratory rate in humans?

A

Involuntary Mechanisms:
= Ensure gas exchange is coordinated w/ blood circulation & metabolic demand

Breathing control center is located in MEDULLA OBLONGATA
= Neg feedback mechanism prevent lungs from overexpanding

56
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Osmoregulation
a. Unit of measurement of solute concentration

A

Osmoregulation: process by which animals control solute conc and balance water gain and loss

Diffusion of water from area of HIGH FREE WATER CONC to AREA OF LOWER FREE CONC: OSMOSIS

Unit of measurement of solute conc: OSMOLARITY (# of moles per solute per L of soln)

57
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Osmoregulation
a. Unit of measurement of solute concentration
i. Meaning of hyperosmotic, hypoosmotic, isosmotic

A

Hypoosmotic: LOW solute conc, HIGH free water conc
= discharge water

Hyperosmotic: HIGH SOLUTE CONC, LOW free water conc
= take water from envir

Isosmotic: equal, no net movement of water

58
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Osmoconformers vs Osmoregulators

A

Osmoconformer: animals isosmotic w/ its surroundings
> live in water w/ stable composition
> all marine animals
> no tendency to gain or lose water

Osmoregulators: animals controls internal osmolarity independent of that external environ (eg. salmon)
> freshwater and terrestrial habitats; some can move b/w fr water and marine environ
> must discharge or take on water accordingly

59
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Osmoregulators

in fishes (marine and freshwater)

A

Osmoregulation in Marine fish:
> EXCRETION of salt ions from gills
> EXCRETION of salt ions and small amount of water in scanty URINE from kidneys

Osmoregulation in Freshwater fish:
> UPTAKE salt ions by gills
> EXCRETION of salt ions and large amounts of water in dilute urine from kidneys

60
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Adaptation that reduce water loss in terrestrial animals

Structural & Behavioral

A

Structural adaptions:
> Waxy cuticle, shells of land snails, exoskeleton, keratinized skin cells

Behavioral adaptions:
> nocturnal behavior in deserts

61
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion

A

Excretion
process that rids body of nitrogenous metabolites and other metabolic wastes
(Breakdown of proteins and metabolic acids)

62
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Types of nitrogenous waste produced by animals

Pros and cons of each

A
  • Ammonia (NH3)
    > Most aquatic animals, most bony fishes
    > Pros: takes very little energy
    > Cons: Very toxic
  • Urea
    > Mammals, most amphibians, sharks, some bony fishes
    > Pros: Low toxicity
    > Cons: Requires more energy (high energy cost)
  • Uric Acid
    > Many reptiles (include birds), insects, land snails
    > Pros: Nontoxic
    > Cons: Not dissolve readily in water, semisolid paste (conserve most water)
    > Most energically expensive but conserves most water
63
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Process of excretion ( 4 steps )

A
  1. Filtration
  2. Reabsorption
  3. Secretion
  4. Excretion
64
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Organs involved

A

Excretory and osmoregulatory function/ organs

Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder, Urethra (male: Large) (female: small), renal cortex, renal medulla

65
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Structure and Function of nephrons

A

Nephrons: functional units of kidneys

Cortical nephrons: reach a short distance into the medulla

Juxtamedullary nephrons: extend deep into medulla

*Key component to water conservation
* Essential for production of urine that is HYPEROSMOTIC (high solute conc) to body fluids

66
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Structure and Function of Nephrons
1st step filtration

A
  • Glomerulus: single long tubule and ball of capillaries
  • Bowman’s Capsule: surrounds glomerulus
    > FILTRATE forms when blood pressure forces fluid from blood in glomerulus into lumen of bowman’s capsule
    > Permeable to water and small solutes, NOT blood cells or large plasma proteins
67
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Structure and Function of Nephrons
2nd step reabsorption

A

Three regions:
- Proximal Tubule: near point of attachment (closest to glomerulus & bowman’s capsule)
- Loop of Henle
- Distal Tubule: far from point of attachment (connects to collecting duct)

  • Collecting Duct: receives and processed filtrate and delivers it to renal pelvis
68
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Structure and Function of Nephrons
3rd step

A

Proximal Tubules:
> reabsorption of water, ions, and nutrients
> reabsorbs 90% of bicarbonate

Descending limb of loop of Henle
> reabsorption of water continues
> AQUAPORIN: proteins make transport epithelium freely permeable to water

69
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Structure and Function of Nephrons
4th step

A

Ascending limb of loop of Henle
> no water channels, NaCl moves into interstitial fluid
> filtrate becomes more dilute

Distal Tubule
> Regulates K+ and NaCl conc of body fluids
> controlled secretion of H+ and reabsorption of bicarbonate

70
Q

Ch 44: Osmoregulation & Excretion

Excretion
Structure and Function of Nephrons
5th step

A

Collecting Duct
> Final processing forms urine as filtrate travels to renal pelvis

71
Q

Ch 46. Reproduction

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction

A

Sexual Reproduction:
- fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid cell (zygote)
- Use Egg and Sperm
Pros: increase variation w/in population
Cons: find mate for survival & contribute offspring

Asexual reproduction
- New offspring generate w/o fusion of egg and sperm
- relies entirely on mitotic cell division
- uncommon in animals

72
Q

Ch 46. Reproduction

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction
Structure and Function of male reproductive organs

A

Testes - male gonads
> produce sperm in highly coiled SEMINFEROUS TUBULES
> scrotum: temp maintained

Ducts:
- seminiferous tubules to epididymis
- during Ejaculation, sperm go through muscular VAS DEFERENS
> Extends around bladder and joins Ejaculatory duct
> Open to urethra

Penis: contains urethra and three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue

Accessory Glands
- Seminal vesicles: produce fluid that is thick and alkaline
> contains mucus fructose, coagulating enzyme, prostaglandins

  • Prostate Gland: secretes a thin and milky fluid directly to urethra
    > contains anticoagulant enzymes and citrate
  • Bulbourethral Glands: pair of small gland along urethra below the prostate
    > secrete mucus to neutralize any acidic urine remaining in the urethra
73
Q

Ch 46. Reproduction

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction
Structure and Function of female reproductive organs

A

Ovaries: flank the uterus and held by ligaments
> outer layer packed with FOLLICLES
– each contains an oocyte surrounded by support cells

Oviduct: extends uterus toward funnel-like opening at each ovary
> OVULATION: cilia on epithelial lining of oviduct help collect egg by drawing fluid from body cavity into oviduct

Uterus: Muscular organ that expand during pregnancy
- ENDOMETRIUM: inner lining
- CERVIX : opening to vagina

Vagina: muscular but elastic
-opens to outside of vulva (external female genitalia)
- LABIA MAJORA: enclose that protect the vulva
- LABIA MINORA: border vaginal opening and opening of urethra

Clitoris: erectile tissue that supporting a rounded glans covered by small hood of skin

74
Q

Ch 46. Reproduction

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction
Male: Spermatogenesis

A
75
Q

Ch 46. Reproduction

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction
Female: Oogenesis

A
76
Q

Motor Mechanics

Know def of bold terms

THICK and THIN FILAMENTS
ACTIN
MYOSIN
CHEMICAL ENERGY
CREATINE PHOSPHATE
GLYCOGEN
TETANUS
OXIDATIVE FIBERS
GLYCOYTIC FIBERS
FAST FIBERS
SLOW FIBERS

A

Thick and Thin Filaments (striations): muscle cell contraction relies on interaction b/w protein structures

Actin: major component in globular protein in thin filaments (2 strands coil around each other)

Myosin: Staggered arrays in thick filaments (aid in muscle contraction)

Chemical energy: Require ATP, product of filament movement, muscle extension only passively

Creatine phosphate: Transfers phosphate group to ADP to synthesize ATP; resting supply can sustain contraction for ~ 15 sec

Glycogen: Restores ATP when broken down to glucose, metabolized by aerobic respiration during light or moderate muscle activity
> HIGHLY EFFICIENT process that yield enough power to sustain contraction for nearly an hour

Tetanus: rate so high that muscle fiber cannot relax, twitches fuse into one smooth, sustained contraction

Oxidative Fibers: rely mostly on aerobic respiration, specialized to make steady energy supply (many mitochondria), large amount of oxygen- storing myoglobin

Glycolytic Fibers: large diameter and less myoglobin, glycolysis primary source of ATP, fatigue more readily

Fast Fibers: brief, rapid, powerful contractions
> can be oxidative or glycolytic, eyes and hands are exclusively fast twitch

Slow Fibers: less sarcoplasmic reticulum and pumps Ca 2+ slowly, muscle twitch last around 5x
> running, walking, swimming, riding bicycles

77
Q

Motor Mechanics

Muscle Anatomy
components of Muscle fibers

A

Thin: ACTIN: two strands of actin coil around each other
> Major component of globular protein

Thick: MYOSIN: staggered arrays of molecules

78
Q

Motor Mechanics
Muscle Anatomy

Contractile unit of Muscles

A

Sarcomere: muscle that shorten the extraction

Contracting muscle SHORTENS but filaments STAY SAME LENGTH

Require ATP and phosphate group for myosin energy to move the actin

79
Q

Motor Mechanics

Muscle anatomy
Levels of organization

A

Microscopic level (sarcomere and myofibrils), Cell level (myoblasts & myofibers), Tissue levels (neuromuscular junctions) , Organ level (major skeletal muscles)

80
Q

Motor Mechanics

Control of Muscle Contraction
Know step by step

A
  • Motor neurons trigger the release of Ca 2+ into cytosol of muscle cells (regulation of Ca 2+ is a multistep process)
  • Release of neuron transmitter (ACh) Acetylocholine
  • An action potential @ synaptic terminal of a motor neuron release acetylcholine (ACh)
    > Binds to receptors on muscle fiber leading to depolarization
81
Q

Motor Mechanics

Control of Muscle Contraction
How is it regulated?

A

Tropomyosin= regulatory protein
Troponin complex= actin strands of thin filaments

At rest tropomyosin covers the myosin-binding sites

When Ca 2+ accumulates in cytosol, it binds in troponin complex
> shifts position exposing the myosin-binding sites

Increase Ca 2+ => Contraction
Decrease Ca 2+ => Extension/ Relaxation

82
Q

Motor Mechanics

Types of Skeletal Muscle fibers

Dark meat = oxidative fibers
Light meat = glycolytic fibers

A

Oxidative Fibers:
- rely on AEROBIC respiration
- specialized to make steady energy supply
- rich blood supply
- large amount to oxygen-storing MYOGLOBIN

Glycolytic Fibers:
- LARGE diameter & LESS myoglobin
- glycolysis primary source of ATP
- fatigue more readily

Fast Twitch Fibers; 2-3xfaster than slow twitch
- brief, rapid, powerful contractions
- can be oxidative or glycolytic
- eyes and hands

Slow Fibers: less sarcoplasmic reticulum and pumps Ca 2+ slowly
- Ca 2+ remain longer in cytosol, muscle twitch last about 5x
- running, walking, dancing, swimming, riding bicycle

83
Q

Immune System

Know Def of bold terms

PATHOGEN
IMMUNE SYSTEM

A

Pathogen: any disease- causing agent

Immune system: first lines of defense help prevent pathogens from gaining entrance to body

84
Q

Immune System

Active vs Passive Immunity

A

Active Immunity: develop introduction of antigens into body through IMMUNIZATION (making your own)

Passive Immunity: IgG antibodies in blood of pregnant female cross placenta to her fetus
> antibodies in the recipient are produced by another individual (transferred) ( does not involve recipients B or T cells)

85
Q

Immune System
Innate vs Adaptive immunity (in detail)

A

Innate immunity: General (all animals)
- traits shared by broad ranges of pathogens, using SMALL set of receptors
- rapid response

Adaptive Immunity: (vertebrates only)
- Traits SPECIFIC to particular pathogens, using VAST ARRAY of receptors
- slower response

86
Q

Immune System
Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity

Cell types involved and their functions

A

Innate Immunity:
-Phagocytic cells: (cellular eating) Neutrophils = circulate in blood, Macrophages = attract signals from infected tissues “Help” Signals & encounter pathogens;
Dendritic cells: tissues that contact external environment

-Natural Killer Cells: release chemicals that lead to cell death

-Antimicrobial proteins: ward off microbial pathogens
Interferons: proteins provided innate defense by interfering with viral infections

-Inflammatory response:
Histamine: Signaling molecule stored in vesicles of MAST cells in connective (released at site of damage and triggers nearby blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable (swelling)
Cytokines: promote blood flow to the site of injury or infection

Adaptive Immunity
-Cytotoxic cells
- T cells: mature in thymus gland
Effector: Helper T & Cytotoxic T cells
- B cells: mature in bone marrow
Effector: Plasma Cells

Memory: Long- lived
Effector: short lived

87
Q

Immune System
What contributes to inflammatory response?

A

Severe tissue damage or infection that leads to response that is SYSTEMIC
- fever
- # of white blood cells increase
- signaling may recruit additional neutrophils from bone marrow

88
Q

Immune System
How antibodies are formed and how they work?

A

Antibodies are produced by B cells,
Antigen comes in contact, B cells divide and Clone
Cloned B cells -plasma cells- release million antibodies in your bloodstream

89
Q

Viruses
Structure of a Virus

A

Viruses are NOT Cells
Consist of
- protein coat (capsid)
- Genetic material (DNA or RNA)

  • some have membraneous envelopes
  • some have accessory structures that facilitate entry into a cell
90
Q

Viruses
Bacteriophages
a. Structure

A

Viruses that infect bacteria
- elongated capsid head that encloses their DNA
- protein tail attaches the phage to the host and injects the DNA phage inside

91
Q

Viruses
Bacteriophages
b. Host

A

Obligate intracellular parasites (cannot survive w/o a host)
- cannot replicate on their own
- Has HOST RANGE: limited # of host cells that can infect

92
Q

Viruses
Bacteriophages
c. Replicative cycles (lytic vs lysogenic)

A

Lytic Cycle = Virulent Phage
- results in death of the host cell

Lysogenic Cycle = Temperate Phage
- Replicates phage genome W/O destroying the host
- ONLY REPLICATE GENOME

93
Q

Viruses
Classification & Characteristics of viruses (esp how retroviruses diff from others)

A

Viral Envelopes:
- viral glycoproteins= bind specific receptor molec on surface to a host cell

  • Retroviruses: REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE (enzyme) to copy their RNA genome into DNA
    – Lead to HIV (retrovirus) that causes AID
  • Provirus: Viral DNA that is integrated into host genome
    – permanent resident of host cell
    –RNA, DNA, host genome, Provirus
94
Q

Viruses
Prions- What are they? How do they cause infection?

A

Prions: infectious proteins that appear to cause degenerative brain diseases in animals

How? Incorrectly fold proteins that can be transmitted in food, act slowly, and are virtually indestructible

Biol 1407 SPC (9 decks)

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