Exam 3: Modules 6-9 Flashcards
a set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to a relatively permanent change in the capability for skilled performance
motor learning
-set of processes
-not directly observable
-direct result of practice or experience
-change in performance must be relatively permanent
the 4 features of motor learning
why is motor learning not directly observable?
it occurs in the brain
what is negative motor learning called?
a bad habit
performance plotted as a function of practice
performance curves
where is performance found on a performance curve?
y-axis
where is practice time found on a performance curve?
x-axis
when scores cluster to the highest limit on a performance curve
ceiling effect
when scores cluster to the lowest limit on a performance curve
floor effect
t or f: ceiling and floor effects have a beneficial effect on the interpretation of a performance curve
false!!!
they have a DETRIMENTAL effect!
a practice schedule in which the duration of rest between practice trials is relatively short; little rest between trials
massed practice
a practice schedule in which the duration of rest between practice trials is relatively long; lots of rest between trials
distributed practice
what is the gold standard for studying motor learning?
transfer/retention design
what are the 3 components of the transfer/retention design?
practice, retention interval, and retention test
why is practice necessary in the transfer/retention design?
you cannot learn without practice
what are the 2 reasons for why rest is necessary in the transfer/retention designs?
-determines permanance
-allow any temporary effects of practice to go away
how long should the retention interval be?
as long as the practice time
what is the retention test used for?
it is used to test to see if learning occurred
something that has a relatively temporary effect on motor performance
performance variable
name a positive and a negative performance variable
positive: motivation; negative: fatigue
something related to practice that is a relatively permanent effect on motor performance
learning variable
what are the 2 critical motor learning variables?
practice and feedback
what 3 technologies are use to measure and study human movement
EMG, eye tracking, and motion capture
technique used to record and analyze myoelectric signals; uses electrodes to record myoelectric activity; widely used in both research and clinical settings to understand the behavior of muscle; determines what muscle is active and how much of it is active
EMG
in EMG, amplitude of signal is proportional to __________
force
EMG works fine if muscles are _________ and ____________
large and superficial
sensor technology that can a detect a person’s direction of gaze and record where a person is looking during an action
eye tracking
what are the 2 types of eye tracking?
screen-based and mobile
eye tracking that is laptop or computer based; where you’re looking on a screen
screen-based
eye tracking that uses eye glasses; red circle on what you’re looking at
mobile
how does eye tracking work?
follows the eye position through the use of infrared light that illuminates the pupil and generates a reflection on the cornea; an infrared camera records the reflection, determines the center of the pupil, records eye rotation, and determines eye gaze
what 2 things can eye tracking quantify?
fixations and saccades
pausing visual gaze on a target
fixation
rapid eye movement to shift gaze from one thing to another
saccades
process of recording the movement of objects/people; measures kinematics
motion capture
photographer known for eary use of multiple cameras to capture motion; focused on locomotion; his photographic plate called Animal Locomotion was published in 1887; he made 781 plates; discovered that horses run and lift both legs off the ground
Edward Muybridge
the idea of not being as good as prior before warming up; to get rid of this, warm up
warm-up decriment
researcher who placed an emphasis on cognitive processes and info processing
Fitts
researcher who placed an emphasis on biomechanics and management of degrees of freedom
Bernstein
number of different ways a system can operate
degrees of freedom
what are Fitts’ 3 Stages of Motor Learning?
-cognitive stage
-fixation stage
-autonomous stage
Fitts stage where you decide what to do; can be long if it is a complicated skill or short if it is a simple skill
cognitive stage
Fitts stage where you organize more effective movement patterns
fixation stage
Fitts stage where the skill is relatively automatic and attentional demand is decreased
autonomous stage
t or f: learning never has to stop
true
why are verbal instructions often not enough to teach something to a learner
it is hard to turn words into actions
what do verbal actions need to be for them to be effective?
clear, concise, and limited to one or two skill component
demonstration/modeling can result in _______________ learning
observational
what are 3 possible methods for skill demonstration?
instructor, peer, picture/video
directing a learner through the task performance; can be physical, verbal, or visual
guidance
verbal ____________ tell someone how to do something and verbal ______________ is making an adjustment
instructions; guidance
guidance is a strong positive ______________ variable, but a weak positive _____________ variable
performance; learning
when should guidance be used?
early in learning OR when there is a risk/fear of injury
an awareness of how a movement should “feel” when performed correctly; skill presentation techniques should encourage the development of this
reference of correctness
what are the 2 fundamental forms of rehearsal for motor learning?
physical practice and mental practice
what are the 3 physical practice techniques?
part vs whole practice, simulation practice
a procedure in which a skill is broken down into parts that are practiced separately
part practice
the gain or loss in proficency on one task as a result of practice or experience on another task; occurs from part practice and is mildly positive
transfer of learning
transfer to something similar (ex. learning to fly a plane in a simulator)
near transfer
transfer to something very different (ex. elementary school gym class)
far transfer
are serial skills good for part practice?
yes, they have many parts
are continuous skills good for part practice?
not really, it is very difficult
are discrete skills good for part practice?
no, there are no parts
the _______ component interaction, the ________ effective part practice will be
lower/higher; more/less
practice that is done by mimicking features of a target skill
simulation practice
what is the goal of simulation?
maximize the transfer of learning to the target skill without actually doing the target skill
safety, convenience/accessibility, cost effectiveness, and precise feedback
primary advantages of simulation
the extent to which the simulator mimics the criterion task
simulation fidelity
what are the 2 types of simulation fidelity?
physical fidelity and psychological fidelity
the degree to which the physical features of the simulator and criterion task are identical
physical fidelity
the degree to which the behavioral processes produced in the simulation replicate those required by the criterion task
psychological fidelity
what are the 2 mental rehearsal techniques?
mental practice and mental imagery
performers think about/through the cognitive or procedural aspects of a motor skill; produces improvements in motor learning and adds value to physical practice, but is not equal to motor learning
mental practice
performers imagine themselves performing a motor skill (from an internal or external perspective); see yourself doing the task
mental imagery
mental practice facilitates __________________(4 words)
learning decision making skills
mental imagery produces anticipated ________________ of an action, which is thought to build memory of the action
sensory consequences
when might mental rehearsal be done?
for a sport or for rehab
a practice sequence in which all of the trials of one task are done consecutively, uninterrupted by practice of other tasks; doing one motion repeatedly
blocked practice
a practice sequence in which the tasks being practiced are mixed(ordered randomly) across trials; minimize extent to which you can do the same trial more than 1 time in a row
random/interleaved practice
the idea that blocked practice has a stronger positive performance variable(get better during practice) and random practice has a stronger positive learning variable(get better after retention period and test)
contextual interference effect
what are the 2 hypotheses for why random practice is effective?
elaboration hypothesis and forgetting hypothesis
states that random practice is better because in blocked, you only have to compare A+B, B+C, etc one time each
elaboration hypothesis
states that during random practice, forgetting occurs, which enhances learning
forgetting hypothesis
when should blocked practice be used?
cognitive and early fixation stage of learning(fix major errors) OR anytime practice performance is more important than learning(trying to instill confidence)
when should random practice be used?
fixation and autonomous stages of learning
a practice sequence in which performers rehearse only one variation of a given task; same variation over and over
constant practice
a practice sequence in which performers rehearse several variations of a given task
variable practice
constant practice is the stronger _____________ variable and variable practice is the stronger positive ______________ variable
performance; learning
a learned rule relating outcomes of a person’s actions to the parameter values chosen to produce those outcomes
schema
when should constant practice be used?
cognitive and early fixation stage of learning AND anytime practice performance is more important than learning—same as when to use blocked practice
when should variable practice be used?
fixation and autonomous stages of learning—same as when to use learning
t or f: it should be a slow transition to variable practice and not everyone reacts the same to it
true
why does variable practice have a stronger positive effect on children than adults?
child has fewer trials than an adult
feedback during the learning experience can be classified as either __________ or _________
inherent or augmented
sensory info that arises as a natural consequence of producing a movement; does not matter what sensory system is used(we have 7)
inherent(intrinsic) feedback
info about movement that is provided to the learner in addition to the info contained in inherent feedback; provided by some artificial means; not necessary for motor learning to occur; classified as either KR or KP
augmented(extrinsic) feedback
augmented feedback about the successes of an action with respect to the goal; info about goal achievement
knowledge of results (KR)
augmented feedback about the movement pattern or errors the learner has just made
knowledge of performance (KP)
t or f: KP and KR cannot occur at the same time
false
is KP or KR more common in the real world?
KR; most of the time, info about goal achievement is available intrinsically
are KR and KP conscious or unconscious?
conscious
what are 2 ways to provide augmented feedback to a learner?
verbal feedback and video
motivational, attention-focusing, informational, dependency-producing
properties of augmented feedback
feedback that may cause a learner to pay more attention, try harder, and practice longer–>cause better learning
motivational properties
properties that state that KR may promote external focus and KP may promote internal focus; states that augmented feedback can be used to direct the learner’s attention for the purpose of practice
attention-focusing properties
info about movement patterns and errors; probably the most important function of extrinsic feedback during motor skill practice
informational properties
descriptive feedback, prescriptive feedback, parameter feedback, program feedback, direction of error, magnitude of error
informational properties
describes what the learner has done—>have to fix problems themselves; promotes independence
descriptive feedback
prescribes what learner should do
prescriptive feedback
feedback about info about a parameter; ex. “you need to use more force”
parameter feedback
feedback about invariant features; ex. “for throwing, you need to step, rotate, and then move arm”; order of muscle movement
program feedback
the accuracy with which feedback describes the error; ex. “you missed to the left” is less precise than “you missed to the left by 5cm”
precision of augmented feedback
feedback that describes “you missed to the left”
direction of error
how much error; “you missed by 5cm”
magnitude of error
if you could only use one out of direction of error and magnitude of error?
direction of error
why do adults do better with precise feedback than children?
adults can ignore things they don’t understand, children cannot
causes learners to become dependent on augmented feedback; causes performance to decline when augmented feedback is not available and performer fails to take advantage of intrinsic feedback
dependency-producing features
total number of feedback presentations given for a series of practice trials; ex. 20 trials, 10 of which are followed by augmented feedback, ______________=10
absolute frequency of feedback
percentage of practice trials receiving augmented feedback; ex. 20 trials, 10 of which are followed by augmented feedback, _______________=50%
relative frequency of feedback
increasing the _____________ frequency of feedback enhances learning, however, there are limitations to this
absolute
reducing the relative frequency of feedback is helpful because it…
-prevents dependency of augmented feedback
-promotes use of intrinsic feedback
is it possible to increase absolute frequency while at the same time reducing relative frequency?
in order to reduce relative frequency of augmented feedback, one must withhold feedback on some practice trials
t or f: two ways to increase absolute frequency while at the same time decreasing relative frequency is using bandwidth feedback and summary feedback
true
when feedback is given to learners only when their errors exceed a certain tolerance level
bandwidth feedback
feedback that is given after a series of practice trials that provides the learner with summary info about their trials (i.e. the average of the trials); strong positive learning variable; works by maximizing amount of info provided to learner without dependency-producing effects of providing feedback for every trial; encourages use of intrinsic feedback
summary feedback
t or f: you should avoid instantaneous feedback
true
