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FSU - Biology 442 - Ecology > Exam 3 - Lecture Notes > Flashcards

Exam 3 - Lecture Notes Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the theme of disease and parasitism

A

Maintaining genetic variation in parasitic resistance through a coevolutionary arms race

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2
Q

hosts selected for…

A

getting better at dealing with parasites

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3
Q

parasites selected for

A

improving infection upon hosts and transmission to new hosts

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4
Q

The red queen hypothesis

A

continued development is needed to maintain fitness relative to what each is coevolving with

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5
Q

Assumptions of the red queen hypothesis model

A

1) the hosts can detect foreign objects

2) hosts and parasites reproduce sexually

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6
Q

Parasite genetics

A

The idea that hosts lag behind the parasites while parasites forge ahead due to their greater capacity to renew their genetic diversity

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7
Q

SIR Model define

A

transmission of microparasites, effects on host shown b/t compartments

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8
Q

SIR Model variables

A

alpha: per capita rate
beta: transmission rate
v: per capita recovery rate of hosts
Y: rate of loss of immunity
b: births
d: deaths

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9
Q

Ex of SIR Model

A

Crows infected by west nile virus when first detected in area
in lab: 100% mortality
in wild: some develop immunity, recovery follows

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10
Q

SIR Model function

A

infections rise to peak of x=Y/beta
then falls to 0 at equilib point
host develops immunity and infection dies out

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11
Q

Ex of macroparasites influencing parasites

A

Barn swallow and mites - reduction in success of nestling
de Lope and Moller - fumigation of nests showed that treated nests had greater nestling success and the addition of a clutch

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12
Q

Lyme disease

A

Involves bacteria ticks and mammals

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13
Q

Life Cycle of Lyme disease

A

2 years in length
females lay eggs on the ground
eggs hatch to larvae which find small mammals and birds to feed on (summer and fall)
molt into nymphs (late spring & summer)
molt into adults (fall)
larvae and nymphs pick up the bacteria while feeding on mammals

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14
Q

Balance of Nature Model - historically

A

s of plants and animals were fixed and in equilibrium and deviations were seen as punishment from divine powers

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15
Q

Balance of Nature Model

A

Involves a limiting factor and regulating factor

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16
Q

Limiting factor define

A

if a change in the factor produces a change in average or equilibrium density

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17
Q

example of limiting factor

A

Disease in white-tailed deer - if abundance is higher without the disease

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18
Q

Regulating factor define

A

if the percent mortality caused by the factor increases with population density

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19
Q

example of regulating factor

A

disease in white tailed deer - if it causes a higher fraction of losses as density increases

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20
Q

Extrinsic factor define

A

affect population from the outside (predation, disease, physical and chemical aspects)

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21
Q

Intrinsic factor define

A

affect pop from the inside (int w/in and vary with sex, age, size, behaviour, physiological and genetic traits)

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22
Q

first principle of population regulation

A

no closed population stops growing unless either the per capita birth rate or death rate is density dependent

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23
Q

Examples of dependence in first principle of population regulation

A

Birth rate density dependent … if it falls as density rises
death rate density dependent … if it increases as density increases
inversely density dependent rates … if birth rates increase as density rises or if death rates decrease as density rises

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24
Q

Second principle of population regulation

A

differences between 2 pop in equilibrium density can be caused by variation in either density dependent or density independent per capita birth and death rates

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25
Q

Factors that can alter the second principle of pop reg

A

Slope - steeper = lower equilib density; general position - raised or lowered

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26
Q

Additive mortality

A

subtracts individuals (adds to mortality)

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27
Q

compensitory mortality

A

does not subtract individuals, but replaces those that would have died anyways, ultimately not changing the pop size - to a certain point

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28
Q

Example of additive mortality

A

Bobwhite Quail

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29
Q

What causes large pop fluctuations in the tent caterpillar

A

1) weather - produces run of good and bad years
2) insect parasites and predators - attack with delayed density dependent lag effects that become cyclic
3) disease - virus opportunistically spreads during peak years and thendeclines — STRONGEST SUPPORT FROM NPV DISEASE

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30
Q

Match/Mismatch hypothesis

A

pop regulation in many fish is determined in early life stages;
mismatch is detrimental

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31
Q

Match/Mismatch successes

A

high - eggs hatch when food abundant curves overlap

low (mismatch) - food scarce and curves separate

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32
Q

Ex of low success/mismatch

A

Atlantic Cod and copepods

surface T increases; copepods density increase, larval cod metabolism increase, cod success decreased

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33
Q

Why did the alaskan king crab pop crash

A

high larval mortality -
fem mature @5, males @10 - only males taken (incorrect)
fem molting limits time to copulate & fem prefer to mate with large males

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34
Q

Why do Lobster fisheries in Australia do well

A

harvest juviniles in shallow water before they spawn, limit traps used based on the number of egg carrying females trapped

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35
Q

Biological control

A

use of predators, parasites, or disease to control pests - includes genetic manipulations in crops, sterilization of pests, and mate disruption with phermones

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36
Q

example of biological control

A

Prickly pear cactus - australia
brought from US and became pest - moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, from argentina, was a successful biological control bc larvae burrow into and feed within pods to allow pathogens to enter

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37
Q

Cultural control

A

pests are reduced by agricultural manipulations involving rotation, stvp cropping, burning residues, or staggering plantings

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38
Q

What are the three types of pest control

A

Biological, Cultural, and Integrated

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39
Q

resource concentration hypothesis

A

crops as monocultures are vulnerable

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40
Q

ex of cultural control

A

Rice and rice blast fungal disease - plant two varieties of rice

1) traditional - susceptible to blast (tall) in single rows
2) new high-yield - resistant to rice blast (short) in rows of 4
result: rice blast reduced and yield increased by 10-15%

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41
Q

integrated control

A

integrated pest management, the use of both biological and cultural methods with minimal pesticides and maximal natural control

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42
Q

What do push-pull strategies help behavioural ecology to do

A

1) push - make a resource unattractive

2) pull - lure pests to an attractive source, then reduced or destroyed

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43
Q

Push-pull ex

A

Corn and stem boring insects in Africa - problem 10-15% losses
soln: use intercrops and traps in fields - boreres repelled (push) by molasses grass and attracted to (pull) napier grass where they oviposit with success

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44
Q

What are the two paradigms of conservation ecology

A

1) small pop paradigm

2) declining population paradigm

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45
Q

What are the challenges of the small pop paradigm

A

1) inbreeding depression
2) genetic drift - changes in allele frequency due to change
3) susceptible to change demographic events due to low genetic variability

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46
Q

exs of small pop paradigm

A

1) Kakapo - large, late maturing, island dwelling, nocturnal, burrowing, flightless parrot
2) Hawaiian Crow - extinct in wild

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47
Q

What is the goal of small pop paradigm

A

Escape an extinction vortex - series of positive feedback loops that ratchet already small pop even smaller until extinction

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48
Q

What is the declining pop paradigm

A

one of the conservation ecology paradigms that involves detecting, diagnosing, and halting a pop decline - action and soln oriented with the most important part being the downward trend, not pop size

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49
Q

Ex of declining pop paradigm

A

Prairie Chicken pop fragmented by agriculture (millions in 1800s, 25,00 in 1933, and 50 by 1993)
Low hatching success attributed to low genetic diversity - hatching improved after 271 birds translocated over three years from other states

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50
Q

Define biodiversity

A

of species in a community or region; indices often weighted by relative abundance and evenness

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51
Q

What is a biodiversity hotspot

A

An area that is more diverse than others

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52
Q

List the factors that cause diversity gradients (6)

A

1) evolutionary speed hypothesis
2) geographic area hypothesis
3) interspecific interactions hypothesis
4) ambient Energy hypothesis
5) Productivity hypothesis
6) intermediate disturbance hypothesis

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53
Q

What is the evolutionary speed hypothesis and an example

A

a) Life in tropics more likely to evolve and diversify more rapidly (constant stable conditions)
b) diversity is a product of evolution and thus dependent on t available to develop (mammals)

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54
Q

What is the geographic area hypothesis

A

larger areas support more species, tropics one big area (increase in # habitats/ m2 as proceed towards equator and therefore lower extinction rates)

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55
Q

What is the interspecific hypothesis

A

Intense competition and predation pressure in the tropics allows for higher diversity - keystone species

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56
Q

Keystone species

A

May increase diversity by decreasing competitive exclusion

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57
Q

ex keystone species

A

pisaster sea star - present, higher diversity; removed, lower diversity

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58
Q

what is the ambient Energy hypothesis

A

Energy available generates and maintains species diversity gradients above 45-48 degree latitude; below expanded more by water availability; water and E levels interact across changes in temperature

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59
Q

What is the productivity hypothesis

A

greater primary production results in greater diversity - makes sense but little support from plant community

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60
Q

what is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis

A

biodiversity will reach a maximum at some intermediate level of disturbance
from A, reduced disturbance higher diversity
from B, reduced disturbance, lower diversity

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61
Q

What is ecological succession

A

the gradual change in plant and animal composition in an area following disturbance

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62
Q

What is primary succession

A

succession on newly exposed geological substrates, not significantly modified by organisms

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63
Q

ex of primary succession

A

after lava flow on glacial recession

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64
Q

what is secondary succession

A

succession in areas where disturbance destroys a community without destroying the soil (geological substrate)

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65
Q

exs of secondary succession

A

after a forest fire or abandoned agricultural fields

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66
Q

What is a pioneer community

A

the 1st plants and animals to colonize an area, say the first 20yr or so

67
Q

what is the climax community

A

succession generally ends with relatively stable conditions until disruptive again

68
Q

ex of a climax community

A

mature forest

69
Q

List the models of what could drive succession

A

1) The facilitation model
2) the tolerance model
3) the inhibition model

70
Q

Who created the models that could drive succession

A

Connell and Slatyer

71
Q

What is the facilitation model

A

A model that could drive succession that states that pioneer species colonize available space
modify the environment
less suitable for themselves
more suitable (facilitate) for other species that take over (replacement species)
replacement species no longer facilitate colonization of other species and may end a chain of facilitations

72
Q

What is the tolerance model

A

A model of what could drive succession that is characterized by early stages not limited to pioneer species - species colonizing early stages do not facilitate colonization of species characteristic of later stages

73
Q

What is the inhibition model

A

A model of what could drive succession that states early occupants modify environment
less suitable for both the early and late successional species
they “inhibit” colonization of late arrivals
other late species can only invade after further disturbance (community of long-lived resistant species)

74
Q

ex of tolerance model

A

primary succession on Mount St. Helens - eruption 18 May, 1980
colonization above tree line slow, lower mudflow, no surviving plants
8 species colonized by 1990s
# species leveled off by late 90s
plants must overcome erosion, low nutrients, and drought
first to exploit do well –> tolerance model

75
Q

ex of facilitation model

A

primary succession on volcanic island of surtsey
new island in 1963
first higher plants - trouble with volcanic sand & severe winters; nutritional conditions limited plant colon until 86
Gulls arrived in 70s and birds and plants increased:
- brought seeds on three longs
- deposited nutrients (N+) from feces
1995 shrubs appeared
first lower plants - concentrated around warm sea vents

76
Q

ex of inhibition model

A

primary succession on Lake MI Sand Dunes @ wilderness state park
72 dune ridges formed, disturbed by fire and logging since then
wind moves the dunes
first - dunes grasses; hold sand but die out in 20 yr
then shrubs and pine trees
mixed pine forest by 200yr
hardwoods after 400yr
small seeds by wind but low survivial
large seeds more hardy but rodents eat them

77
Q

Define food web

A

summary of feeding interactions within a community

78
Q

define food chain

A

a single line from prey to subsequent predator, and to next predator, etc.; (becomes web as more species discovered)

79
Q

trophic levels

A

source of energy for organisms divided into hyperparasites and mesoparasites

80
Q

what are hyperparasites

A

parasitize parasites

81
Q

what are mesoparasites

A

below tertiary consumers

82
Q

What is a guild

A

a group of species exploiting a common resource base in a similar fashion

83
Q

what is an example of a guild

A

nectar feeders

84
Q

define functional role

A

what they do in the community

85
Q

broad and specific example of functional roles

A

broad - decomposers or producers

specifically - pollinators

86
Q

What two things do guilds and functional roles do

A

1) simplify the components of communities to help us understand how they are organized
2) reminder that ecological units are not taxonomic units

87
Q

what are two examples of both guilds and functional roles

A

shredders - aquatic invertebrates that are the 1st to eat leaf litter

Nitrogen fixers - prokaryotes that convert atomspheric nitrogen to ammonium

88
Q

what is a dominant species

A

exert strong effects on community by virtue of their high biomass (abundance)

89
Q

exs of dominant species

A

trees in a forest
grass in grasslands
corals in reefs
kelp in marine habitats

90
Q

define keystone species

A

despite low biomass, exert strong effects on their community

91
Q

predator example of keystone species

A

Sea Otters- predator of Northwest Kelp forest; kept sea urchins in check
fur trade resulted in severe otter declines by 1900, kelp forest near destruction due to herbivory by sea urchins

92
Q

herbivore example of keystone species

A

African Elephant- herbivore of open woodland; nondiscriminately browse on grass, tress and shrubs keeping them all in check; cyclic process maintains an open woodland

93
Q

List the models of community organization

A

1) top down

2) bottom up

94
Q

what is a top down model

A

trophic cascade, predation controls community organization; plants control nutrients

95
Q

example of a top down model (general)

A

Freshwater systems - removing the top predator (bass) leads to an increase in primary carnivore (minnows), then decrease in herbivores (zooplankton), increase in phytoplankton, defense plants depress amounts of available nutrients

96
Q

What is the bottom-up model

A

nutrients control community organization; nutrients control plant #, to control herbivore #s

97
Q

example of a top down model

A

Zion National Park - human pop rose to levels to suppress puma pop, mule deer pop exploded, increased browsing on cottonwoods, soil stability decrease causing stream banks to erode, large loss of cattails, frogs and toads

98
Q

What is ecosystem metabolism

A

the sum of the metabolism of individual organisms; organisms as machines that process E and associated materials

99
Q

autotrophs - E and ex

A

Energy from the sun and materials from nonliving sources; green plants

100
Q

heterotrophs- E and ex

A

Energy and materials from eating living matter; herbivores and carnivores

101
Q

What is an ecosystem

A

organisms and the abiotic environment, including movement of E and materials

102
Q

what is the goal of an ecosystem

A

goal is to ID foodweb and associated species that significantly contribute to metabolism

103
Q

List the measurements used to define metabolic significance

A

1) biomass
2) flow of chemical materials
3) flow of Energy

104
Q

biomass and ex

A

weight or standing crop; timber industry

105
Q

flow of chemical materials

A

ecosystem as a super organism with inputs and outputs;

can be recycled

106
Q

flow of energy

A

ecosystem as an Energy transformer;
takes solar E and fixes some of it in photosynthesis
transmit plant to herbivore to carnivore
E passes through only once to be released as heat

107
Q

define compensation point

A

where photosynthesis = respiration

108
Q

define grass primary production

A

energy or carbon fixed through photosynthesis per unit time

109
Q

define net primary production

A

energy or carbon fixed through photosynthesis minus energy or carbon used in respiration per unit time

110
Q

true or false, plants only conduct photosynthesis as a means of E

A

False; plants also do respiration

111
Q

List the two methods of measuring primary production

A

Harvest Method

Gas exchange method

112
Q

What is the harvest method

A

a method of measuring primary production that is the amount of plant material produced during a given unit of time (whole plant or at meristems) that is converted to E by measuring calories in a bomb calorimeter

113
Q

Example of the harvest method

A

timber production or crop yield

114
Q

What is the gas exchange method

A

a method of measuring primary production that is usually measured as O2 release (easier) rather than CO2 uptake (harder); repeat procedure in the dark to measure respiration - allows for both gross and net estimates

115
Q

State the equation for the gas exchange method

A

Efficiency of gas = (E fixed by gross)/(E in incident sunlight)

116
Q

What are the factors that limit productivity in aquatic systems (4)

A

depth to which light penetrates
water absorbs solar radiation
Temperature affects light intensity
Nutrients: N and P linked to fertilization of small farm ponds which leads to an increase in fish pop

117
Q

what is eutrophication

A

excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen

118
Q

Evidence of eutrophication

A

Schindler experiment in Lakes; phosphate and nitrate for 5 years –> 50-100 times phytoplankton
Another lake basin added phosphorus –> algal bloom

119
Q

What did Charles Darwin suggest about primary production and plant diversity

A

Increase production = increase in diversity

120
Q

What did Tilman suggest about primary production and plant diversity

A

Different plant species get along better if different niches, thus resources would get completely used with high diversity
more species –> more competition —> reduced diversity

121
Q

Evidence for Tilman’s model of primary prod & plant diversity

A

Park Grass experiments, England
Production is high, diversity drops to right side of curve
(some cases might just flatten eg. tropic areas)

122
Q

What are the two fates of plant biomass (2nd production)

A

a) eaten by herbivore later eaten by carnivore

b) eaten by detritvore

123
Q

what is the assimilation rate

A

the sum of the respiration rate and productivity

124
Q

what is the respiration rate (lab)

A

estimated by measuring O2 consumed, CO2 output, and heat production

125
Q

what is basal metabolic rate

A

amount of E expended while at rest, regulate T and post-absorptive

126
Q

what does gross productivity of a plant equal

A

assimilation rate

127
Q

what is the respiration rate (field)

A

injecting animal with doubly labeled water to estimate the difference b/t loss of H+ and O2 isotopes (observed CO2 loss)

128
Q

what is net production

A

measured in population growth of individuals or reproduction of new animals, usually as biomass or kcals

129
Q

ex of net production

A

African Elephants in Uganda
results: over 99% of E used in maintenance or lost in feces
high variation, difficult to replicate

130
Q

List the three problems estimating 2nd production

A

1) not always adhere to specific trophic levels
2) what to do w/detritus?
3) difficult to sample adequately

131
Q

What is not adhere to trophic level?

A

one of the three problems in estimating 2nd production that states the higher up in the food chain a species is, the more difficult it is to categorize species

132
Q

ex of not adhere to trophic level

A

Squirrels as herbivores, yet eat meat opportunistically

plants are producers

133
Q

define detritus

A

plant production not consumed by herbivores

134
Q

what to do about detritus?

A

one of the three problems in estimating 2nd production that states that this does not belong in 1st trophic level w/dung & that it is outside typical levels
Creates a complex food web

135
Q

What is difficult to sample adequately

A

one of the three problems in estimating 2nd production that states that it is challenging to get adequate measurements, especially during non equilib conditions in changing ecosystems

136
Q

Ex of difficult to sample adequately

A

Aquatic systems w/plankton and macroinvertebrates

requires much time and $$$ to get good data

137
Q

What is nutrient cycling

A

Use, transformation, movement and reuse of nutrients

138
Q

Energy in an ecosystem

A

Makes a one-way trip through ecosystems

139
Q

Define nutrients

A

elements required for the development, maintenance, and reproduction of organisms that are used over and over in an ecosystem

140
Q

Examples of nutrients

A

Phosphorus (P), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Iron (Fe)

141
Q

What is a tracing exercise

A

Trace a single ion through an ecosystem

142
Q

Example of a tracing exercise (steps)

A

1 - diatom in surface water absorbs the ion and integrates it in DNA
2- one of the diatom daughter cells eaten by Cladoceran and –> ATP
3 - eaten by a minnow and –> combined with a lipid and placed in cell membrane
4 - eaten by Northern Pike and –> into its skeleton
5 - dies in winter –> dissolved into the water during decomposition
6- spring diatom takes up ion and cycle begins again

143
Q

Why is the phosphorus cycle important

A

essential to energetics, genetics, and structure of living systems

144
Q

Where do you find phosphorus

A

mostly in mineral deposits and marine sediments

eg. sedimentary rocks, weathering rocks

145
Q

Phosphorus cycle

A

most often released from weathering rocks, used and recycled

146
Q

Why is geological uplift important to the phosphorus cycle

A

It is over the sedimentary rock that allows for new land formation causing the cycle to be complete

147
Q

Why is the nitrogen cycle important

A

important to structure and functioning of organisms

148
Q

What does phosphorus form parts of?

A

ATP, RNA, DNA, and phospholipids

149
Q

What does nitrogen form parts of?

A

aa, nucleic acids, and parts of the chlorophyll and hemoglobin

150
Q

What nutrient may limit primary production?

A

nitrogen

151
Q

T or F Lightning can fix nitrogen

A

true

152
Q

What is denitrification

A

conversion of nitrate to molecular nitrogen (n2) by bacteria

153
Q

What is the nitrogen cycle?

A

Nitrogen fixed, enter animal consumers, cycles back, exits organic matter thru denitrification, back to atmosphhere, fixed again …

154
Q

Where is nitrogen in a warm ecosystem

A

found in understory, then woody biomass

155
Q

where is nitrogen in a cool ecosystem

A

found in understory, yet forest floor continues to build (decomposition is slower in cool climates)

156
Q

How should logs be processed? Why?

A

Logs should be processed in the field to leave bark and branches behind so that the entire nitrogen pool isn’t taken away

157
Q

Why is the carbon cycle important

A

essential part of all organic molecules

158
Q

How does carbon move between the atmosphere and organisms

A

Photosynthesis and respiration

159
Q

What is the process of removing atmospheric carbon

A

photosynthesis (CO2)

160
Q

What is the process of returning atmospheric carbon

A

respiration (CO2)

161
Q

How is CO2 available in aquatic ecosystems?

A

It must first be dissolved before it is available to primary producers –> carbonate will precipitate out and eventually be buried in ocean sediments

162
Q

Where does carbon take a long time to return back to the atmosphere?

A

in soils, peat, fossil fuels, and carbonate rock

163
Q

What are the 5 main ecological lessons?

A

1) predator-prey interactions
2) competition
3) population cycles
4) ecosystems
5) energy and nutrition

164
Q

What is the small population paradigm

A

One of the two conservation ecology paradigms that focuses on rare species & the pop consequences of being rare and the problems that come with it

FSU - Biology 442 - Ecology (4 decks)

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