Exam 1 Flashcards
Define Ecology
scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms
Define Distribution
Where organisms are found
Define Abundance
How many organisms in a given area
Theme of Ecology
Patterns and processess
Theme of Conservation Biology
Preserve biodiversity
Focus of Ecology
Interrelations of all plants and animals
Focus of Conservation Biology
Analysis of human impact
T or F Conservation Biology contributes to Ecology
False - Ecology contributes to Conservation Biology
What are the 3 Ecological points of view (list)
Descriptive, Functional, and Evolutionary
What is Descriptive Ecology
an ecological point of view that describes natural history and vegetation - the foundation
What is Functional Ecology
an ecological point of view of: dynamics and relationships, populations and communities, proximate causes (the how questions)
An example of Evolutionary Ecology
ex. fish change in size and age of first reproduction in response to a predator in Trinidad
What does Ecology do through its 3 points of view
it sheds light on distribution and abundance
What happens to our understanding as size gets larger (ie. molecules - organisms - biosphere)
It decreases
List the three approaches to Ecology
Theoretical, Laboratory, and Field
Define theoretical ecology
creative thinking and modeling to arrive at interesting ideas - use problems to investigate further ideas
Define laboratory ecology
take theoretical ideas to controlled conditions of the lab
Example of laboratory ecology
Fish aquaculture
Define field ecology
investigate in natural habitats where complexities are opening
example of field ecology
vole population changes over time
Define evolution
Change in allele frequencies through time in a population
What does evolution lead to
adaptation
Example of natural selection
Industrial melanism in Peppered Moths - initially majority white with black sprinkling but black form became common during revolution 1850s - black form on decline since 1950s since no longer industrial soot
List three types of natural selection
Directional, Stabilizing, and Disruptive selection
Define directional selection
Phenotype at one extreme is selected against
Ex directional selection
Galapagos Ground Finch Bill size - smaller billed birds only eat small seeds but larger can eat both so can survive better - bill depth distribution goes larger
Define stabilizing selection
Phenotype towards the mean is selected for
Ex stabilizing selection
Lesser Snow Goose in hatching synchrony - too early will be preyed upon, too late preyed upon - in the middle the dilution effect causes safety in #s
Define disruptive selection
phenotype at extremes are favored over the mean
ex disruptive selection
Three-spine stickleback in the lakes of BC - smaller morph evolved for surface living and larger morph evolved for benethic feeding
What is an optimality model
a model that assumes natural selection will achieve adaptations that are the best possible for each trait in terms of survival and reproduction
Determinate vs indeterminate layers (regarding clutch seize)
Some birds lay a given number of eggs whether or not some are removed whereas other birds will keep laying eggs to fill the nest after removals (mallard duck)
Lack’s Hypotheseis
Eggs determined by # of young the parents can provide with food
Blue Tit experiment & results - what is this an example of
Lay 9-11 eggs, changing this number caused a lower rate of success. This shows optimal clutch size/ Lack’s Hypothesis
Coevolutionary Arms Race
Selection will favor improvements on one side, then the other (predator-prey and host-parasite interactions)
Ex of coevolutionary arms race (bird)
Brown-headed cowbirds lay eggs in other birds nest so other female birds may fight the female cowbirds, or will kick out eggs in the nest that look different. Cowbirds are quickly laid and when hatched, have the instinct to roll all other eggs out of the nest so that they are the surviving offspring
ex of coevolutionary arms race (amphibian)
The garter snake has built up a resistance to the very toxic rough-skinned newt by slowly getting more used to the poison and then going back and forth
What are the four unities of natural selection
Individual selection, gametic selection, kin selection, and group selection
Define individual selection
most common type - the strongest wins
Define gametic selection + ex
factors w/sperm and egg - ex) pollen tube length
Define kin selection + ex
through relatives - ex) altruistic behaviour (squirrels)
define group selection
variable groups, extremely weak if at all
Define Behavioural Ecology
survival value of behaviour - how (proximate) and why (ultimate)
Cost-Benefit approach ex
Golden-winged sunbird defends a territory of 1600 flowers because 2000 too much E defending and 1000 selling self short
List the three stages of optimal migration
Time minimization, energy minimization, and cost of transport minimization
Define time minimization
early arrivals have an increased fitness - by it is countered by the high energy cost
Define energy minimization
favored when use of energy is high and food is uncommon along the way
Define cost of transport minimization
another energy minimization strategy that focuses on the entire annual life cycle
Describe the model that combines all three optimal migration stages
the two variables are the fuel deposition rate (fraction of body mass accumulated per day) and the departure load (fat and protein fraction of body mass)
What is the optimal migration stage for Reed Warblers
They cross the sahara desert and spent much more time in stop overs and used more energy there - Time minimization model is the best fit
Define infanticide and describe which animal is seen doing it (that we discussed in class)
when the male lions that are new to a pride come and kill all the non-weaned young
What can female lions do to avoid infanticide
Pseudostrus - they will take receptivity and if they are pregnant will emit the odors and do the behaviours that state that they are not
Example of Geographic distributions
The African honey bee was introduced to south america in 56 and they have spread but reached an upper and lower limit because of temperature, moisture, and pH
Geographic distributions are about …
Patterns and process
Describe successful and unsuccessful transplant experiments
If it is successful, it means that they just could not get their because of a barrier or because of habitat selection. Unsuccessful because other species or the physical or chemical environment
What is Liebig’s Law of the MInimum
It is limited by that factor in least amount relative to requirements, ex) single nutrient for crops
Shelford’s Law of Tolerance
controlled by the factor for which the organism has the narrowest range of tolerance
What are some (4) examples of Shelford’s Law of Tolerance
T in fish - critical thermal methodology (plot a max and mix and make a polygon) Sheepshead minnow (highest known max and repeat the tolerance measures) Temp and moisture - may vary with life cycles and setting Plant adaptation to serpentine soils - presents extreme conditions and in normal soils they do not do well
List the four biotic factors that limit distributions
Dispersal, Predators, Disease, and Competition
List the two Abiotic Factors that limit distributions
Temperature and Moisture
What are the three models of dispersal
Diffusion, Jump, and secular
Define diffusion dispersal
gradual movement of a population typically through different areas over many generations
what is an example of diffusion dispersal
California sea otter expanding its range north and south
what is an example of jump dispersal
terrestrial species colonizing islands like spiders
Define jump dispersal
movement of individual organisms across large distances like the Galapagos penguins
define secular dispersal
diffusion dispersal where natural selection causes groups to evolutionarily diverge over time
What is Reid’s Paradox
Discrepancy between how fast species are able to disperse versus what calculations show they should disperse
What is an example of Reid’s Paradox
Oak trees spread after glacial recession - observed was 1000 but predicted was 36 - colonization rates are driven by extreme dispersal, not the average
define predators
being eaten by another organism may affect their local distribution
give a biotic example of predators
Rock wallabies and red foxes in Australia; the foxes were poisoned and the wallaby population was able to spread out
Disease as a biotic factor
being pathogenic toward another organism may also affect their local distribution native birds in Hawaii
Example of disease as a biotic factor
The avian pox and the avian malaria - both are transmitted by mosquito vectors that avoid cool temps
competition as biotic factor
one species may out compete another and affect their distribution
examples of competition
American mink introduced in the UK around 1900, then expanded expanded their range but declined because of competition
What is the theme of abiotic factors
temperature, moisture, and pH
What is an example of temperature at an abiotic level (twig)
Willow twigs collected in winter can survive lower than - -150 C
What is an example of temperature at an abiotic level (bird)
North american passerine birds, black-capped chickadee with the strong selective pressure on energetic demands operating at low Ts
define moisture as an abiotic factor
The ability to maintain water use and their distributions
What are three things plants due to limit moisture less conditions
Improve water uptake at the roots (ex - rapid root growth into deeper areas)
Reduce water loss (close stomata and reduce leaf SA)
Store water efficiently
What is the Common Garden
experiments that can tease out genetic affinities as evidence for adaptation to varying conditions
Example of a common garden
The western yarrow of the mountain
Western - smaller plants that undergo dormancy
Eastern - late to flower due to weather
Results - major attributes maintained so it reveals a genetic component
What is the general pattern of distribution and abundance
most species within a group have a small geographic range and only a few have very large ranges
What are two examples of organisms with a small range size
North American Birds and the vascular plants in Britain
What is an example of how patterns may not be consistent at smaller scales
Tetraphis moss clumps on individual trees and Great blue herons that follow weather
Define Rapaport’s Rule
geographic range sizes listed for mammals decreased as one moved from polar to equitorial regions
Example of Rapaport’s Rule (support)
for 523 species large range sizes are rare - shows that range size will decrease as latitude decreases (Canadian mammal larger ranges than Mexican mammals)
Example of non-support of Rapaport’s Rule (bird)
North and South American woodpeckers have the smallest ranges at 20 latitude
Rapaport’s Rule plus ELEVATION
Trees in Nepal the range size peaked at 1500 m - maybe it is O2 related
List 3 ecological explanations for Rapoport’s Rule
Climactic variability, product of glaciation, and less competition near the poles
What are the two predictions of climatic variability
1 - for terrestrial animals and plants tolerance should increase from tropical to polar
2- for marine organizms, T variation is greatest in temperate areas, with polar and tropical areas more stable
What is climactic variability
One of the ecological explanations for rapaport’s rule that is the idea that it is greater at high altitudes and that temperature tolerances should be lower in tropical and polar areas
What is product of glaciation
one of the ecological explanations of rapaport’s rule that says that following retreat only a few species could repopulate the northern regions which is why they ahve large geographic ranges
What is less competition near the poles
one of the ecological explanations of rapaport’s rule that states that there is lower diversity and fewer species so they are able to take on larger geographic ranges
Q: if a species is widespread is it always abundant? Or do rare species have small ranges?
More widespread species tend to be more abundant
Hanskis Rule
distribution and abundance show a positive relationship
Give two examples of Hanskis Rule
263 species of British moths show support (6-14 years of data)
World-wide data for ducks and geese shows very large support
List 3 ecological explanations for Hanski’s Rule
Sampling model, ecological specialization model, and the local populations model
what is the sampling model
one ecological explanation for Hanski’s Rule that argues that the observation is simply an artifact of sampling because rare species will artificially show such a pattern
What is the ecological specialization model
one ecological explanation for Hanski’s Rule that states generalists will become abundant and wide-spread whereas specialists will only be able to exploit limited area
What is are examples of generalists
White-tailed deer and blue jays
what is the local population model
one ecological explanation for Hanski’s rule that take us to the idea of patchy distributions like that of the Great blue heron and moss - some organisms are just better at dispersing than others and will therefore be more widespread and abundant
Q: if a species is declining in abundance, does it reduce it’s geographic range?
Complex -
Eastern Medowlark shows a positive rln - range shrinks as number declines
Common Grackles shows reverse pattern, range size increases as numbers decline
Define a population
a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular time
Define deme
a genetic population, may be a breeding subdivision of a population
Define density
number of individuals per unit area or volume
List the four parameters that change density
Natality (births)
Mortality (deaths)
Immigration (mvmt in)
Emigration (mvmt out)
Define unitary organisms
each individual is easily recognized as a separate genetic individual - ex is praying mantis and most other higher animals
define modular organisms
zygote or spore forms a module that produces similar modules, common in plants and some invertebrates - ex Aspen tree grove and blades of grass
what are the two levels of population structure modular organisms give way to?
Ramets and ganets
Define ramets
modular unit - ex) a blade of grass, an aspen tree trunk
Define ganet
genetic individuals composed of one or more modular unites - ex) tuft of grass, grove of aspen trees
list the two broad approaches to estimate population density
Absolute density and relative density
define absolute density
the number per unit area or volume - difficult to obtain
define relative density
Represent some relatively constant but unknown relation to the total population size (deer) - quick and easy
Define total counts
count all of the individuals in a given area and divide by the area or volume
give two examples for total counts
trees in a desert and deer in a fenced in park
what is the problem with total counts
they are very difficult to obtain
Define sampling methods
collecting data on a sample in order to estimate the total population density
what is a quadrat
count all individuals in a known subarea and extrapolate to the total area
what are the three assumptions to be a reliable estimate for a quadrat
the numbers within the q must be accurate
area of q must be known
area of q must be representative of the total A
how do we get a reliable estimate from a quadrat
random sampling
what is an example of a reliable estimate for a quadrat being achieved (plant)
19, 21, 17, 19 individual dandelions of 10cm x 10cm to extrapolate to 1900 dan / m2
what is an example of a reliable estimate for a quadrat being achieved (non plant)
Wireworms near cambridge, england - 240 random core samples contained 3,742 larvae which gives an estimate of 19.3 mil per ha
define capture recapture
if you can capture animals, mark them, release them, and then the proportion marked in subsequent samples should be representative of the proportion marked in the entire population
What is the Peterson Method
a capture recapture method for two samples at different times.
marked 2nd n = marked 1st n
total caught 2nd N (total pop size)
Give an example of capture recapture
Trout - marked and released 109 and a few days later caught 177 of which 57 were marked - what is N?
338
What are the assumptions of capture-recapture
All equal probability of being caught - Trap happy (underestimates number) vs Trap shy (overestimates number)
No incoming individuals between captures - flood mixing lake pop
Mark and Unmarked die / leave at same rate (marking snails bright red will make them die sooner)
No marks are lost (bands fall off birds (overestimates) or clipped fins grow back)
what are some examples of how you can get relative density
fecal pellets/ other articats roadside counts percent cover vocalization frequency pelt records
Define natality
production of new individuals by births, hatching, germination, or fission
Define fecundity
an organisms physiological potential reproductive capacity
EX of potential fecundity
one female salamander may lay several hundred eggs per year
Define fertility
Ecological potential, number of viable young produced during a period of time
EX realized fertility
Same female salamander may have 30 young during a 2 year period
Relationship between fecundity and potential care
They are inversely related
Define mortality
deaths, why organisms die and how others avoid it
Define longevity
age of death of individuals within a population
define potential longevity
maximum lifespan as set by physiology (old age - usually observed in lab)
define realized longevity
following disease, predation, or other natural hazards - usually observed in the field
Example of longevity (bird)
Great Horned owls have 30-40 in captivity but only 7-10 in the wild
Example of longevity (not bird)
Humans - in Rome 21 yo, England 1780s 39, 2007 US 81
Immigration and Emigration define
movement in and out of the population (dispersal)
What 3 things do immigration and emigration do
it prevents inbreeding, limits geographic distribution, affects community composition
give a negative example of immigration and emigration
small songbirds do not live very long because of how challenging it is
How do you collect data for immigration and emigration
Data collected with radio transmitters
Define Evolutionary ecology
An ecological point of view that examines ultimate causes - the why
An example of functional ecology
The plant communities in Florida Wetlands
