Exam 3 - Land Issues

Question 1

Plantations, haciendas, small holder communities (where, why, functions)

Answer 1

Plantations – tended to be located in areas where the indigenous population was less advanced (and were soon eliminated)
These were export-oriented, for profit business – efficiently run operations
Haciendas – tended to be located in areas with indigenous populations that were subject to the owners
Production was primarily for domestic markets – they were symbols of prestige (power and status) rather than a “business” like plantations – aristocrat culture with feudal relationship to peasants
Smallholder communities – tended to be located in inaccessible or undesirable locations
Residual indigenous communities
Retained pre-Colombian practices
EX. communal land
Numbers increased with poor mestizo peasants

Question 2

Export (capitalist) agriculture: relationship with peasant agriculture

Answer 2

Plantation model grew at expense of the hacienda model (and smallholders) as foreign interest developed post independence (late 19th century) – most unequal continent in the world at the time
US companies became major landowners, turning plantations into modern capitalist farms – exporting wealth outside the region
Landowners with large holdings (local and foreign) became richer and more politically influential, acquiring more and more land
Population growth lead to increasingly insufficient land holdings as plots are further subdivided as families expand
Many are forced to seek work on plantations because the limited land cannot support families year round
70% of rural population in Central America are seasonal migrants
Many end up migrating to the slums in cities

Question 3

Modern Agriculture

Answer 3

Development schemes with government investment – typically put into large scale export agriculture (favors plantations over the majority smallholders)
Colombia – 50-fold increase 1950-72; Mexico – irrigated its arid northwest
Alliance for Progress (1961) – US support of Latin American land reform after Cuban Revolution (wanted to quell discontent)
However, this development scheme typically had incompatible goals…
Redistribute land and wealth to rural poor so they don’t go the way of Cuba
Increase productivity and modernization of agricultural sector (which typically means consolidating land in large scale farms)

Today, agricultural MNCs have drawn back from direct control of land, preferring instead to contract out to local farmers
Local farmers take the risks (like crop failure) and deal with labor issues
Power is still in the hands of large-scale agriculture, which has a monopoly on land, capital, credit, state support, and access to global markets

Question 4

Competition for land: MNCs and ownership

Answer 4

Commercial agriculture – spread into peasant farms forcing smallholders out
Through: money, legal trickery (deeds), brute force (armed thugs)
Peasants – seized idle lands, organizing political movements to demand agricultural reform
EX. Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra (MST) in Brazil
Largest social movement in Latin America (1.5M)
3% of landowners control 2/3 of arable land
Plantations – most disputes are over labor issues such as wages and working conditions
Government response to demands for land (and to reduce urban tensions) have been Colonization Programs
Governments use colonization of the frontier as an alternative to land reform
But the land is often unsuitable for agriculture and/or it is located in remote areas that would necessitate outrageous transportation costs

Question 5

Mexican Land Reform

Answer 5

Came out of Mexican revolution (1910-1917 ) – Article 27 of the Constitution
Major land reform efforts under Lazaro Cardenas (1934-1940) – helped to solidify PRI clientilism
Broke up haciendas, gave 1.5M families land
Ejido system is practiced in many indigenous communities: communally-owned land administered by Indian communities along traditional lines
Although land was redistributed, there was a failure to reform the necessary credit/investment – overall, done little to improve living standards
Constitutional reform in 1990’s allowed piecemeal privatization of ejido lands
A reason for the Zapatista uprising in 1994
Neoliberal restructuring has put past gains in reverse across the region

Question 6

Plantation Issues

Answer 6

Land viewed as a resource base for exploitation with no sense of stewardship (a European model) since colonization
Major environmental issues in the region…
deforestation
soil erosion
agricultural pollution
industrial pollution
poverty’s affect on the environment
62% of world’s remaining tropical rainforest are located in Latin America – 12% had been destroyed by mid-90’s
Why are forests destroyed?
Pastures for cattle; large scale agriculture
Colonization programs by governments
By peasants for agriculture
Development projects – dams and industries
Logging
What are the costs of deforestation?
Erosion of topsoil
Disruption of the local climate
Forest resources for the poor lost
Loss of way of life for indigenous
Loss of biological diversity/genetic materials
Loss of commercial potential
Loss of “carbon trading” potential
Soil Erosion
Agriculture contributes to soil erosion in a number of ways
Land distribution is a factor – peasants are often located on marginal lands (like hillsides) – not practicing sustainable methods
Mechanized agriculture can also be inefficient in maintaining soil integrity
Chemical Inputs
Pesticide companies often claim philanthropic pursuits
Chemicals are typically only used on export crops (too expensive for peasant farmers) – but the health effects are felt locally
Spraying chemicals puts them into the air, and workers are often not given adequate safety instructions or safety gear
Irresponsible management – not ensuring proper use
Pesticide treadmill – more and more is needed as pest become resistant
Protective legislation/regulation is often ignored
Monsanto people around the world are taking action, within their business teams and through their individual volunteer efforts. They work to develop systems that reward innovation in underserved markets, make our products and research safe, help their communities through volunteer efforts and charitable giving, and contribute to collaborative work environments.
Helping families to improve food production and nutrition, including research on reducing the impact of pests on subsistence crops
Science education, with grants being given to communities near Monsanto facilities for programs that support greater science literacy
Work that benefits the environment, including programs that promote environmental education and awareness, improve water quality, improve wildlife habitat, and encourage conservation
Community efforts, including arts and cultural events, local school projects, human needs programs, and community services projects

Question 7

Labor Issues

Answer 7

Predilection for “big” development projects
Massive dams equal hydroelectric power – industries typically spring up around them
Problems: debt, displacement, environmental/habitat destruction (reservoir), climate/geologic change, loss of arable land, parasitic disease (from standing water), siltation
Pressure on international agencies have changed policy (less mega-dams being built); but countries still paying off debt from these projects
Extractive industries – mining and oil
Environmental damage integral, unavoidable; also accidents
Other industries spring up around them as well
Small producers also a problem – gold prospectors on indigenous lands in Amazon use mercury which contaminates water and land
SAPs – push for export-led growth (raw material production)
NTAE (non-traditional agricultural exports): require more chemical inputs than traditional/non-export products (EX: shrimp farms)
Maquiladoras: well known industrial polluters
Population Issues – urban areas
Smog in urban areas – industry, automobiles (75%), etc.
ISI – unchecked industrialization and agricultural policies which forced increased urbanization
Booming population growth since 1950s*

Question 8

Alliance for progress?

Answer 8

 Alliance for Progress (1961) – US support of Latin
American land reform after Cuban Revolution (wanted
to quell discontent)
 However, this development scheme typically had incompatible
goals…
 Redistribute land and wealth to rural poor so they don’t go the way of
Cuba
 Increase productivity and modernization of agricultural sector (which
typically means consolidating land in large scale farms)

Question 9

Mexican Land Reform, ejido, zapatistas

Answer 9

Ejido system is practiced in many indigenous communities: communallyowned
land administered by Indian communities along traditional lines
 Although land was redistributed, there was a failure to reform the necessary
credit/investment – overall, done little to improve living standards
 Constitutional reform in 1990’s allowed piecemeal privatization of
ejido lands
 A reason for the Zapatista uprising in 1994