Exam 3: Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10 Flashcards
0
Q
control prophecies
A
-shift information from one memory store to another
1
Q
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
A
- includes 3 memory stores that retain info in memory without using it for any purpose
- 3 stores: sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory
2
Q
sensory memory
A
- memory store that accurately hold perceptual info for a brief amount of time
- need attn in order for it to move to STM, if no attn then info is lost
- consists of iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (auditory)
3
Q
short term memory (STM)
A
- limited capacity and duration (1 min)
- sensory info goes through control process of attention to move it into STM
- some of this info goes through encoding to bring info to long term memory
- retrieval brings info from LTM back to STM
4
Q
Long term memory (LTM)
A
- memory store that holds info for extended time if not permanently
- encoding - brings info here from STM
- retrieval - brings info from here to STM
5
Q
Iconic memory
A
- visual form of sensory memory
- holds for about .5 - 1 second
6
Q
Echoic memory
A
- auditory form of sensory memory
- held for about 5 seconds
7
Q
proactive interference
A
- first information learned occupies memory, leaving fewer resources left to remember newer info
- cramming
8
Q
retroactive interference
A
- most recently learned info overshadows older memories that have not yet made it into long term memory
- snapchat?
9
Q
working memory
A
- model of short term remembering that includes a combo of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts on info for a short amount of time
- includes phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer
10
Q
phonological loop
A
-storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and stores info as sounds or an auditory code
11
Q
visuospatial sketchpad
A
- storage component of working memory
- maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code
12
Q
episodic buffer
A
- storage of working memory
- combines the images and sounds from other two components into coherent, story like episodes
- newest member of working memory
- can hold 7 to 10 items of info
13
Q
central executive
A
- control center of working memory
- coordinates attention and exchange of info among the three storage components
14
Q
Magical Number 7
A
- George Miller
- study where he found participants could remember seven units of info give or take 2
15
Q
chunking
A
-organizing smaller units of info into larger more meaningful units
16
Q
Brown Peterson Test
A
- measures the duration of working memory
- relies on meaningless stimuli and interference
- meaningless info lasts about 15 to 18 seconds
17
Q
feature binding
A
-visuospatial memory can accurated retain approx 4 whole objects
18
Q
declarative memories
A
- memories that we are consciously aware of and can be verbalized
- including facts about world and personal experiences
- part of long term memory
- includes semantic and episodic
19
Q
episodic memories
A
- declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to bw organized around episodes
- recalled from first person perspective
20
Q
semantic memories
A
-declarative memories that include facts about world
21
Q
nondeclarative memories
A
- actions or behaviors that you can remember and perform with awareness
- include procedural memories and conditioning
22
Q
procedural memories
A
- patterns of muscle movement (motor memory)
- things you do
23
Q
conditioning
A
- nondeclarative memories
- reflexive
- things you feel
24
long term potentiation
- enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between nerve cells that fire together
- hipocampus = learning new memories
25
consolidation
- process of converting short term memories into long term memories in the brain
- cellular consolidation - neurons adapt and make changes more permanent
26
case of H.M (Henry Moliasin)
- hippocampus removed
| - unable to form, learn, and make new memories
27
amnesia
- profound loss of at least one form of memory
- key features: roll of time and time of injury
- usually related to brain injury or phenomena
28
retrograde
- a condition in which memory for the event preceding trauma or injury is lost
- Alzheimers
29
Anterograde
- the inability to form new memories for events occurring after brain injury
- hippocampal removal
30
storage
-time and manner in which information is retained between encoding and retrieval
31
rehearsal
- helpful for short term memory but not long term
- understanding the true meaning helps for long term
- maintenance rehearsal - prolonging exposure to info by repetition (not helpful)
- elaborative rehearsal - prolonging exposure to info by thing about meaning (helpful)
32
shallow vs deep processing
- shallow is know what it is
| - deep is knowing why and how it is that
33
encoding specificity principle
-predicts that retrieval is most effective when it occurs in same context as encoding
34
context dependent learning
-retrieval is more effective when takes place in the physical setting as encoding
35
state dependent learning
- retrieval is more effective when internal conditions match those experienced during encoding
- heart rate and physiological state
36
mood dependent learing
-people remember better is their mood at retrieval matches mood at encoding
37
context dependent forgetting
- change in environment influences forgetting
| - walking into a room and forgetting why you went there
38
context reinstatement effect
-returning back to original location and memory that you lost suddenly comes back
39
emotional memories
-involve the hippocampus and amygdala
40
flashbulb memory
- an extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event
- can be personal or involve community
- people are highly confident that their recollection is accurate but they arent always perfect
41
forgetting curve
- Ebbinghaus
- studied syllables and kept testing himself noticing that he was forgetting
- shows that most forgetting happens right away the slows down
42
mnemonics
-technique intended to improve memory for specific info
43
acronym
-pronounceable word whose letters represent the initials of an important phrase or set of items
44
first letter technique
-first letters of a set of items spell out words that form a sentence
45
dual coding
- information is stored in more than one form and it regularly produces stronger memories than the use of one form alone
- such as verbal description and visual image or description and a sound
- EX: alphabet
46
method of loci
-connects words to be remembers to locations along a familiar path
47
testing effect
-taking practice tests can improve exam performance even without additional studying
48
schema
-organized cluster of memories that constitutes ones knowledge about events objects and ideas
49
constructing memory
-process where we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details
50
schema consistent
-the organization and what we expect, whats relevant, important
51
schema inconsistent
-things that are distinctively different and not what we expected
52
early memories
- need language to produce memories and schemas
| - 24 mo of age
53
independent cultures
- America and Europe
- individual is emphasized
- remember autobiographical memories
54
collective cultures
- western (Asia, Africa)
- group is greater than individual
- early memories are less autobiographical
55
false memories
- remembering events that did not occur or incorrectly recalling details of an event
- have to be aware of this in eye witnesses
56
misinformation effect
- happens when info occurring after an event becomes part of memory for that event
- Loftus - stages a car accident, asks if there was a yeild sign when it was really a stop sign and witnesses agreed it was yield sign (false)
57
DRM procedure
-participants study a list of highly related words called semantic associates then asked and able to identify the most obviously missing word (critical lure)
58
imagination inflation
-increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event
59
false photographs
-participants are shown photographs that have been altered by adding false objects and participants agreed and told stories relating to the fake object
60
recovered memories
- memories of traumatic event that are suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long time
- also known as repression from Freudian psychoanalysis
61
recovered memory controversy
- difficult to study because it is not reliable or valid
| - Beth Rutherford was told her dad raped her and she falsely remembered details of event leading to many issues
62
concept
- mental representation of an object, event or idea
| - not independent, they are related
63
categories
-clusters of interrelated concepts
64
classical categories
-objects or events are categorized according to a certain set of rules or by a specific set of features
65
definitions
-how we put things into category
66
graded membership
-observation that some concepts appear to make better category members than others
67
prototypes
-mental representations of an average category member
68
semantic network
- an interconnected set of nodes (or concepts) and the links that join them to form a category
- nodes represent concepts
- links connect them together
69
priming
- activation of individual concepts in long term memory
| - makes you more aware of certain concepts
70
linguistic relativity (Whorfian hypothesis)
- the language we encounter and use determines how we understand the world
- meaning of word "empty"
- the way words describe colors
71
problem solving
-accomplishing a goal when the solution or the path to the solution is not clear
72
well defined problem
-problem that has a clear initial state and goal state
73
ill defined
- problem that may be lacking definition in one or more ways
- ambiguous initial state
- lack of familiar operators
74
initial state
-describes what the condition is at the outset of a problem
75
goal state
-what you need or desire as an outcome
76
obstacles
-something that slows or prevents progress towards goal
77
operators
-techniques we use to reach goal state
78
algorithm
- problem solving strategies based on a series of rules
| - give precise answers
79
heuristics
- problem solving strategies that stem from prior experiences and provide an educated guess as to what is most likely the solution
- short cut
80
self imposed obstacles
-happen when asked to think outside the box
81
mental set
-cognitive obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution to what is actually a new type of problem
82
functional fixedness
-an individual identifies a potential operator but can only think of its most obvious function
83
representativeness heuristic
- making judgements of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category
- assumption
84
availability heuristic
-estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind
85
anchoring effect
- individual attempts to solve a problem involving numbers and uses previous knowledge to keep the response within a limited range
- use an anchor to solve problems
86
belief perseverance
-occurs when an individual believes he or she has the solution to the problem or the correct answer for a question and accepts only evidence that confirm those beliefs
87
confirmation bias
- individual searches for only evidence that will confirm his or her beliefs instead of evidence that might confirm them
- answer does not already exist
88
maximizers
-individuals who attempt to evaluate every option for every choice until they find the perfect fit
89
satisficers
-individuals who seek to make decisions that are "good enough"
90
language
- form of communication
| - spoken, written or gestures that are combines in a rule based form
91
phonemes
- most basic unit of speech
| - sound of a letter
92
merphemes
- smallest meaningful units of language
| - simple words or prefixes or suffixes
93
semantics
-study of how people come to understand meaning from words
94
syntax
-rules for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases and sentences
95
pragmatics
- study of nonlinguistic elements of language use
| - how something is said (sarcastic, jokingly)
96
sensitive period
- time during childhood in which children's brains are primed to develop language skills
- fades during 7th year
97
Language acquisition device
-helps us acquire language ad its and innate part of us that is reinforced when used appropriately
98
milestones
- 1 to 2 mo: cooing
- 4 to 10 mo: babbling
- 8 to 16 mo: single word stage
- 24: two word stage
- 24+ : meaningful phrases
99
fast mapping
-ability to map words onto concepts or objects after only one single exposure
100
intelligence
-ability to think, understand, reason, and cognitively adapt to and overcome obstacles
101
achievement tests
-measure knowledge and thinking skills that an individual acquires
102
aptitude test
-designed to measure an individuals potential to perform well on a specific range of tasks
103
psychometrics
- the measurement of psychological traits and abilities
| - includes personality, attitudes, and intelligence
104
important concepts in psychometrics
- validity: degree of which a test measures the intended factor
- reliability: giving consistent results
105
standardized test
-test that has a set of questions or problems that are administered and scored in a uniform way across large numbers of individuals
106
norms
-statistics that allow individuals to be evaluated relative to a typical or standard score
107
standard deviation
- 1 deviation = 15 points
- average intelligence range = 85 - 115 (68%)
- borderline intelligence = 70 - 85 (14%)
- gifted range = 115 - 130 (14%)
- over intelligent = 130 - 145 (2%)
108
Binet and Simon
- developed a method of assessing children's academic achievement at school
- test measures the mental age
109
mental age
-the average or typical test score for a specific chronological age
110
Lewis Termon
- modified Binet and Simons test
| - called Standford-Binet test
111
Stanford -Binet test
-intended to measure innate (genetic) intelligence
112
William Stern
-developed intelligence quotient (IQ)
113
intelligent quotient
- measurement in which the mental age of an individual is divided by persons chronological age and then multiplied by 100
- was not a true measurement
114
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
- developed by Wechsler
- most commonly used intelligence test used on adolescents and adults
- provides an overall score, a general ability index, and a cognitive proficiency index
115
Overall score
- full scale IQ score
| - broken down into GAI and CPI
116
General Ability Index (GAI)
- based on Verbal comprehension (define words, general knowledge) and perceptual reasoning (engage in visuospatial tasks)
- focuses on individuals general intellectual abilities
117
Cognitive Proficiency Index
- based on Working memory (how you manipulate info quick and effectively) and processing speed subtests
- thought style and ability to think
118
Ravens progressive matrices
- an intelligence test that emphasizes problems that are intended not to be bound to a particular language or culture
- measures deductive reasoning and reproductive reasoning
119
Anthropometrics
- Galtons measure of intelligence (intelligence is genetic)
- referring to method of measuring physical and mental variation in humans
- tests did not correlate with eminence
- now we look at working memory and problem solving for intelligence
120
Charles spearmen
- believed we have general intelligence (g)
| - came up with the technique of factor analysis
121
factor analysis
-statistical technique that reveals similarities among a wide variety of items
122
general intelligence (g)
- concept that intelligence is a basic cognitive trait comprising of the ability to learn, reason, and solve problems regardless of their nature
- high g score = high ability to solve problems in any domain
123
Fluid intelligence
- type of intelligence that is used to adapt to new situations and solve new problems without relying on previous knowledge
- creative
- ex: ravens matrices
124
Crystalized intelligence
- form of intelligence that relies on extensive experience and knowledge and tends to be relatively stable and robust
- vocab and reading comprehension etc
125
savants
-individuals with low mental capacity in most domains but extraordinary abilities in other specific areas such as music, math, or art
126
Triarchic theory of intelligence
- model of intelligence bases on three domains : analytical intelligence, practical intelligence, creative intelligence
- created by Robert Sternberg
127
Analytical Intelligence
- verbal, mathematical problem solving
- book smarts
- close to notion of general intelligence (g)
128
Practical intelligence
- ability to address real world problems in daily life
| - street smarts
129
creative intelligence
-ability to create new ideas to solve problems
130
multiple intelligences
- model claiming that 9 different forms of intelligence exist, each independent from the others
- see chart in book (pg 324)
131
flynn affect
- steady population level increases in intelligence over time
- because of technology and education etc
132
siblings and intelligence
- .4-.5 of intelligence is passed down from parents
- siblings have .8 similar intelligence
- identical twins have .85
- first born usually has higher IQ
133
health and nutrition
- those who have more nutrients have more energy to learn
| - no direct correlation
134
income
-more affluent parents can provide more for children leading to more learning
135
gender
- men score higher on IQ but intelligence is diff from women
- women preform higher on verbal ability
- males perform higher on visuospatial tasks
136
hormones
- both men and women have testosterone but in varying levels
- women with high testosterone preform high on visuospatial tasks
- men with low testosterone perform better on verbal tasks
137
racial effects on intelligence
- Asians score highest on intelligence measures
- next is Europeans, Latin Americans, then African Americans
- Asian and Europeans have 2.5 difference
- Asian and A.A = 15 difference (1 standard deviation)
138
culture
- diff cultures emphasize different intelligences
- American = books smarts and common sense (individualistic)
- African and Asian = respectfulness and empathy (collectivist)
- poor judgment of own intelligence (.10 to .30 correlation)
139
personal beliefs and intelligence
- our beliefs affect performance
| - childs self perception plays huge role in academics
140
entity theory
- intelligence is a fixed characteristic and relatively difficult to change
- no help or attention
141
incremental theory
- intelligence that can be shaped by experiences, practice, and effort
- help and attention
142
stereotype threat
-individuals are aware of stereotypes about their social group and may fear being reduced to that stereotype
143
disidentification
-experiences become part of ones self concept
144
physiological anxiety
- anxiety related to ones physiological experiences (sympathetic)
- increase of cortisol leads to change in brain activity
145
developmental psychology
-study of the change and stability of human physical, cognitive, social, and behavioral characteristics across the life span
146
stages
- change and transitions are abrupt
- overnight changes
- ex: growth spurts
147
continuous
-development is a slow and varying process
148
sensitive period
- window of time during which exposure to a specific type of environment stimulation is need for normal development of a specific ability
- ex: language fluency, perception, balance, adaptation
149
gestation
-pregnancy
150
fertilization
-sperm meets egg and penetrates it
151
germinal stage
- first phase of prenatal development
| - spans from conception to 2 weeks
152
zygote
-cell formed by fusion of a sperm and an ovum (egg cell)
153
embryonic stage
- spans from week 2 - 8 when the embryo begins developing major physical structures
- ex: heart and nervous system, beginnings of arms, legs, hands, and feet
154
fetal stage
- spans week 8 to birth
| - skeletal, organ, and nervous systems become more developed and specialized
155
fetal brain development
- develops at embryonic stage
| - stops at 24/25 years old
156
premature birth
- normal gestation: 37 wks / 9 mo
- pre term: 36 wk or earlier
- 25 wk = 50% survival
- survival rates decline the earlier baby is born
- 30 wk = 95% survival
- not all pre-me babies have developmental problems
157
teratogen
-substance (drug) that is capable of producing physical defects
158
fetal alcohol syndrom
- abnormalities in mental functioning, growth, and facial development in the offspring of women who use alcohol during pregnancy
- 1 in 1000 worldwide
- often goes unreported
159
vaccinations and autism
-VACCINATIONS DO NOT CAUSE AUTISM
160
sensory before birth
- 4 mo gestation (2nd trimester) brain and senses start developing
- 1st senses are eyes and ears
- 3rd trimester = fetus actively listens and responds to external cues
161
vision at birth
- can see 12 - 15 inches
- 20/20 by 12 mo
- genetics kick in causing need for corrective lenses
- color vision develops at 2 mo
162
smell at birth
- very important for infant since eyesight isnt fully developed (strong memory cue)
- cringe @ foul odors, no response to good odors
- discriminate towards mothers breastmilk
163
motor abilities
- voluntary motor movements at 5 mo gestation
| - 3rd trimester and birth = nervous system develops to demonstrate reflexes to allow communication
164
rooting reflex
-believes its feeding time when corner of mouth is stimulated
165
moro reflex
- occurs when infants lose support of their head
| - startled reflex
166
grasping reflex
-stimulation to infants palm causes them to grip tightly
167
physical changes in infancy
- laying on stomach
- crawling, rolling
- sit up (balance)
- walking and running
- brain develops, cerebral cortex thickens (sensory>motor>perception>executive functioning)
168
Piaget Development theory
- study of changes in memory, thought, and reasoning processes that occur through lifespan
- development includes assimilation and accommodation
169
assimilation
-add new information but interpret it based on what they already know
170
accomodation
-children modify their belief structures based on experience
171
sensorimotor stage
- 1st stage of Piagets
- spanning birth to 2 yrs
- infants thinking and understanding of world is based on sensory experiences and physical actions when they perform on objects
172
pre operational stage
- 2nd stage in Piagets
- spans 2 yrs to 7 yrs
- understanding of symbols, pretend play, and mastery of the concept of conservation
- conservation: quantity or amt of object is not related to appearance
173
concrete operational stage
- 3rd step of Piaget
- spanning 7 to 11 years
- children develop skills in using and manipulating numbers as well as logical thinking
174
formal operational stage
- final step in Piaget
- spans 11 yr to adult
- development of advanced cognitive process such as abstract reasoning and hypothetical reasoning
175
core knowledge hypothesis
-view on development proposing that infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environment
176
habituation
-decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event
177
dishabituation
-increase in responsiveness with the presentation of a new stimulus
178
Vygotsky
- tried understanding sociocultural factors in child development
- children have zone of proximal development
179
zone of proximal development
-development is ideal when a child attempts skills and activities that are just beyond what he or she can do alone, but the child has guidance from adults who are attentive to his or her progress
180
scaffolding
-approach to teaching in which teacher matches guidance to the students needs
181
attachment
-enduring emotional bond formed between individuals
182
Harry Harlow Monkey Experiment
-monkey felt attachment from a comforting object rather than an object that provided food
183
Strange Situation experiement
- Ainsworth
| - how babys act to caregiver when faced with a stranger
184
Secure attachment
-baby is calmed down immediately by caregiver
185
disorganized attachment
- may or may not be calmed down
| - varies from time to time
186
Resistant
-child is upset when mother leaves and angry when she returns
187
Avoidant
-child does not get upset when mother leave and doesn't seek contact when she returns
188
self awareness
-the aability to recognize ones individuality
189
egocentric
- perceive and interpret the world in terms of self
| - see world through their own perspective
190
theory of mind
- ability to recognize the thoughts, beliefs, and expectations of others and to understand that these can be different from ones own
- pass the false belief task around 5 yrs
191
temperament
- general emotional reactivity, which is regarded as the root from which several aspects of adult personality grow
- BUILDING BLOCKS OF PERSONALTY
192
puberty
- physical transition from childhood to adolescence, culminating in reproductive maturity
- females - 11 yrs
- males - 13 yr
193
primary sex traits
-genitals and gonads (testes or ovaries)
194
secondary traits
-growth in breasts and hips, body hair, voice changes etc
195
menarche
- the onset of menstruation
| - occurs around age 12
196
spermarche
- their first ejaculation of sperm
| - 14 years of age as a wet dream (nocturnal emission)
197
Kohlbergs trolly experiment
- examined how people reason about moral dilemmas and identified three stages of moral reasoning
- asked young boys what they would do with trolly lever
198
pre conventional morality
- finding solution through egocentric methods
- fearful of punishment
- lacks abstract or depth
199
conventional morality
- focused on rule of law
| - law=moral
200
post conventional morality
- high order thinking
- abstract
- rules are relevant but not abstract
201
identity
- self image and perception of ones unique and individual characteristics
- personal, social, future goals
202
identity crisis
-curiosity, questioning, and exploration of different identities
203
Identity statuses
-process and outcomes of identity development that include elements of both crisis and personal commitment
204
identity achievement
-committing to a particular ID youre happy with
205
identity diffusion
-refusal to commit to one identity
206
identity foreclosure
- do not experience an identity crisis
| - commit to roles that are handed down by parents
207
identity moratorium
-prolonged experiment with different identities
208
sociometric popularity
-well respected individuals with low levels of aggression
209
perceived popularity
- perceived popular and more well known than sociometric populars
- not well liked and more aggressive
210
peer rejection
-rejected by peers
211
cyber bullying
- more common now than in person bullying
| - leads to problems with mental health
212
romantic relations
- 80% have sexual acts (not intercourse)
- 60 % same sex
- dating can elevate social status
213
adulthood
- young to middle age = weight gain, greying hair
- 50 years old = menopause (low estrogen)
- older = 65 yr and up
214
dementia
-mild to severe disruption of mental functioning, memory loss, disorientation, poor judgement, and decision making
215
alzheimers disease
-degenerative and terminal condition resulting in severe damage of entire brain
216
authoritative parenting
- expression of warmth and responsiveness to the needs of children
- excersizing control over certain actions and decisions made by children
- best parenting
217
authoritarian parenting
- emphasizes control over children
| - express less warmth
218
indulgent permissive parenting
- warm but indifferent
- do not attempt to control children even in positive helpful ways
- spoiled and give everything they want
219
indifferent uninvolved parenting
- show neither warm or control toward children
| - dont care either way
