Exam 2: Chapters 4, 5, 6 Flashcards
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perception
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-taking in data from senses, organizing, and interpreting
1
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sensation
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-process of detecting external events through sensory organs
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transduction
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-process of taking physical or chemical stimuli into a neural signal
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absolute threshold
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- minimum amount of energy or quantity of stimulus required to be reliably detected
- 50% consistent and stable
- varies from individual to individual
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difference threshold
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- smallest detectable difference between a stimuli
- noticing the slightest difference
- considers amount
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signal detection
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- whether an individual is able to perceive a stimulus depending on sensory experiment and judgement
- sensory and decision making process
6
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4 possible outcomes of sensory decision making
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- Hit: heard something and it is there
- False alarm: Heard something but not really there
- Correct rejection: didnt hear anything and there isnt anything there
- Miss: didnt hear anything but there was something
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Gestalt principles of Perception
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-5 ways of perception
~figure and ground: figures stand out against background
~proximity: treat 2 or more objects in close proximity to eachother as a group
~similarity: group i terms of color, shape, orientation, etc
~continuity: view items/images as whole firgures even when broken into segments
~closure: when whole object/shape is broke and we fill gaps
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selective attention
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-focusing on one task or even
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divided attention
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- paying attention to several stimuli or tasks at once
- self proclaimed multi taskers preform worse on cognitive tests
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in-attentional blindness
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-failure to notice to obvious because attention is directed elsewhere
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Hue
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-colors of spectrum
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intensity
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-brightness of colors
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saturation
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-colorfulness/density of color
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sclera
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-white outer surface of eye
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cornea
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- clear covering of eye
- focuses on images
- light enters through here to pupil
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pupil
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-contracts/dilates and takes in certain amount of light
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retina
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- light is converted to nerve cells
- consists of rods and cones
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rods
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- see grey, black, white, vision
- scattered around retina
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cones
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- help see color
- concentrated in center of retina (fovea)
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dark adaptation
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-rods and cones become increasingly sensitive to light under low levels of illumination
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optic nerve
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- connects eye to occipital lobe
- cluster of neurons that gather sensory info
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nearsightedness
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- eyeball is elongated
- image that cornea and lens focus on falls short of retina
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farsightedness
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- eye is perfectly round
- image is focused behind the retina
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perceptual constancy
- ability to perceive object as having constant shape, size, and color despite changes
- due to judgements
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binocular depth cues
-distance cues that are based on differing perspectives of both eyes
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convergence
-eye muscle contracts so both eyes focus on a single object that are close to us
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retinal disparity (binocular disparity)
- difference in relative position of an object as seen by both eyes
- provides information to the brain about depth
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monocular cues
- depth cues that we can perceive with only one eye
| - accommodation and motion paralax
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accomodation
-lens of eye curves to allow you to focus on nearby objects
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motion paralax
- used when you or surroundings are in motion
| - objects closer to us move faster than further objects
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trichromatic theory (young-helmholtz theory)
-color vision is determined by three different cone types that are sensitive to short, medium, and long wavelengths of light
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opponent process theory
- we perceive colors in terms of opposite ends of the spectrum
- red - green
- yellow - blue
- white - black
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sound waves
- frequency
| - amplitude
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frequency
- wave length
- measures in Hertz (Hz)
- number of cycles a sound wave travels per second
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amplitude
- determines loudness
- measured in decibels (dB)
- high amplitude is louder than low amplitude
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pitch
- perceptual experience of sound wave frequency
| - high frequency = short wavelengths = high pitch
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auditory canal
-moves/conducts sound waves to eardrum
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eardrum
-receives sound info and moves to temporal lobe to be identified
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sound localization
- process of identifying where sound comes from
- time difference - focuses on time (did it reach right or left ear first?)
- sound shadow - focuses on intensity (which ear heard it stronger?)
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place theory of hearing
- how we perceive pitch is based on the location along the basilar membrane that sound stimulates
- basilar membrane's hair follicles move sound along
- works well hearing high frequenciess
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frequency theory
-perception of pitch is related to frequency at which the basilar membrane vibrates
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volley principle
-groups of neurons fire in alternating fashion allowing sounds to be perceived
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conduction hearing loss
- any of the physical structures that conduct sound waves to the cochlea are damaged
- treatment: hearing aid
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sensorineural hearing loss
- damage to cochlea hair cells (sensory) and the neurons composing the auditory nerve (neural)
- treatment: cochlear implants (not aides)
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touch
- pressure
- temperature
- pain
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touch receptors
-located beneath skin, in muscle joints and tendons
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haptics
- active, exploratory aspect of touch sensation and perception
- helps avoid damaging or dropping objects (grip)
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kinesthesis
- sense of bodily motion and position
| - helps position and movement
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pain
- felt by body and perceived by pain
| - pain messages travel to spinal cord to hypothalamus
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nociception
- activity of nerve pathways that respond to uncomfortable stimulation
- slow fibers - chronic, dull pain that lingers
- fast fibers - sharp, immediate pain
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gate control theory
- nerves in spinal cord conduct pain messages and inhibit pain messages
- small fibers - pain
- fast fibers - inhibit pain (try to stop it right away)
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gustatory system
-sensation and perception of taste
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taste buds
- localized to tongue and cheeks
- on avg 10,000 buds
- primary tastes: salty, sweet, bitter, sour, umami (savory)
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super tastors
- 25% of population
- favor bitter taste
- not obese or overweight
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olfactory system
- smell
| - detection of airborne particles with specialized receptors located in nose
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olfactory bulb
- sits underneath frontal lobe (frontal lobe accesses memories)
- when we smell something it triggers emotional memories
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consciousness
- persons subjective awareness
| - including thoughts, perceptions, experiences of the world and self awareness
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circadian rhythms
-internally driven daily cycles of approximately 24 hours affecting physiological and behavioral processes
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suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
-bulb in back of break helping dreaming and sleeping
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awake
-beta waves
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awake and calm
-alpha waves
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stage 1
- theta waves
- slow waves with high amp
- breathing, HR, BP decrease
- lasts up to 15 min
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stage 2
- sleep spindles (active waves)
- k complex waves (dips and highs)
- more diff to wave up
- brain, body slows
- lasts up to 20 min
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stage 3-4
- marked by delta waves
- brain still slows down
- diff to wake person up
- lasts for 1 hr
- usually restarts after this stage
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REM
- enter this sometimes
- deep brain activity, low body activity (paradoxical sleep)
- lasts 20 min
- dont feel fully rested without REM sleep
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REM rebound
-body tries to make up for the amount of REM sleep lost
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restore and repair
-body needs to restore energy levels and repair any wear and tear on the body from day's activities
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preserve and protect
- adaptive functions of sleep
| - preserving energy and protecting organism from harm
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sleep deprivation
- when an individual cannot or does not sleep
- concentration decreases
- mores susceptible to sickness
- emotional wellbeing is effected
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the interpretation of dreams
- Freud
- dreaming is unconscious expressions of wants
- comes from manifest content and latent content
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manifest content
-images and storyline of dream
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latent content
-actual symbolic meaning of dream
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activation synthesis hypothesis
- dreams arise from brain activity originating from bursts of excitatory messages from brainstem
- hits perception= why dreams are weird
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insomnia
- lack of sleep
| - subjective experience that someone reports
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onset insomnia
- diff falling asleep
| - doesnt sleep within 30 min
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maintenance insomnia
-cannot return easily to sleep after waking up in middle of night
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terminal insomnia
-person wakes up too early and cant return to sleep
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primary insomnia
-arises from internal source and not result of another disorder
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secondary insomnia
- result of other disorders
| - cure by treating other disorder
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nightmare
- vivid and disturbing dreams
| - occur during REM sleep
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night terrors
- intense bouts of panic and arousal that awaken individual in a heighten emotional state
- occur during NonREM sleep
- typically do not remember dream content
- more common in young children
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restless leg syndrome (RLS)
-persistent feeling of discomfort in the legs and the urge to continuously shift them into diff positions
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Somnambulism (sleep walking)
-involves wandering and performing other activities while asleep
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sleep apnea
- temporary inability to breathe during sleep
- common among obese and men
- treatment: mouth guards, weight loss, CPAP mask
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narcolepsy
- person experiences extreme daytime sleepiness and even sleep attacks
- lasts for few seconds to few minutes
- immediate REM sleep
- produce less orexin = less wakefulness
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sleep state misperception (SSM)
- person underestimates her amount of sleep on a regular basis
- paradoxical insomnia because they think they cant get enough sleep
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positive sleep state misperception
- individuals regularly overestimate their amount of sleep
| - begins to show sleep deprivation
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overcoming sleep problems
- non-pharmacological techniques
- sedatives (valum=placebo effect, expect it to work increases misperceptions)
- relaxing
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hypnosis
- procedure of inducing a high state of suggestive relaxation
- deep relaxation, slow breathing, think clear, relax muscles
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ideomotor suggestions
- related to specific actions that could be performed
| - adopting certain position
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challenge suggestions
- indicate actions that arent supposed to be performed
| - lose ability to preform that action
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cognitive- perceptual suggestions
- remember or forget
| - altered perceptions (reduce pain sensations)
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dissociation theory
-explains hypnosis as a unique state in which consciousness is divided into observer (highly focused) and hidden observer (auto pilot)
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sociocognitive theory
- explains hypnosis by emphasizing the degree to which beliefs and expectations contribute to increased suggestibility
- conform to expectations
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meditation
-involves a shift in consciousness to a state in which an individual is highly focused, aware, and in control of mental processes
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Mindful based stress reduction (MBSR)
- not meditation
- mindfulness - being present in current moment, no distractions
- teaches and promotes mindfulness
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deja vu
- distinct feeling of having seen or experienced a situation that is impossible or unlikely to have previously occured
- activation of temporal lobe (recognition) and hypocampus (memory)
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coma
- state marked by complete loss of consciousness
- due to TBI or medically induced
- some reflexes
99
persistent vegetative state
- minimal to no consciousness in which patients eyes may be open and develop wake-sleep cycles without clear signs of consciousness
- Terry Shaivo
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minimally conscious state
-disordered state of consciousness marked by ability to show some behaviors that suggest partial consciousness
, even on an inconsistent basis
-follow simple commands
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psychoactive drugs
-substances that affect thinking, behavior, perception, and emotion
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simulants
- drugs that speed up the nervous system
- enhance wakefulness & alertness
- cocaine - most widely used stimulant
- amphetamines - prescribed stimulants (ADHD)
- methamphetamines - illegal stimulants
- ecstasy - stimulant and hallucinogen
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hallucinogenic drugs
- produce perceptual distortions
- LSD, Ketamine, DMT
- distortions - visual, auditory, tactile
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marijuana
- buds of cannabis plant that produce a combo of hallucinogenic, stimulant, and relaxing effects
- THC binds to cannabinoid receptors in brain
- mimics neurotransmitters involved in sleep and memory
- short term because receptors are in hippocampus (short term memory)
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opiates aka narcotics
- reduce pain and produce extreme euphoria (binds to endorphins)
- drugs such as heroin or morphine
- derived from poppy plants
- fentanyl and oxycodone = pain relievers
106
sedative drugs
- depress activity of central nervous system (downers)
- barbiturates: dangerous and highly addictive, ability to shut down brain stem
- benzodiazepines: addictive, less side effects, increase GABA reducing anxiety, xanax and valium
107
alcohol
- most commonly abused drug
- targets GABA receptors decreasing anxiety
- low dose=euphoria
- excessive=inhibition of frontal lobe which inhibit behavior
- consequences: assault, unprotected sex, drunk driving
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abuse
-using it consistently and causes problems socially, physically, or legally
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tolerance
-repeated use of drug results in a need for a higher dose to get intended effect
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dependence
-need to take drug to ward off unpleasant physical withdrawal symptoms
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learning
-process by which behavior or knowledge changes as a result of experience
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cognitive learning
-reading, listening, and taking tests
113
associative learning
-how we pair stimuli
114
classical conditioning
-learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally causes by another stimulus
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unconditioned stimulus
-stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning
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unconditioned response
-reflexive unlearned reaction to unconditioned stimulus
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conditioned stimulus
- once a neutral stimulus
| - elicits a conditioned response because it was learned to be paired with an unconditional stimulus
118
conditioned response
- learned response that occurs from conditioned stimulus
| - usually same response as unconditioned
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aquisition
-initial phase of learning in which a response is established
120
extinction
-loss or weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together
121
spontaneous recovery
- reoccurrence of a previously extinguishes conditioned response
- typically some time after extinction
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stimulus generalization
-response that was originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to a different but similar stimulus
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stimulus descrimination
-organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be similar
124
conditioned emotional response
-emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific object or stimulation
125
little Albert experiment
- object: rat
- emotional response: fear from loud noise
- association: rat = fear (generalized)
- explains phobias
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conditioned drug tolerance
- learning without awareness
- physiological responses in preparation for drug administration
- cues associated with drug cause craving
127
operant conditioning
-behavior is influenced by consequences
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reinforcement
- process event or reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of response occurring again
- uses reinforcer: the actual stimulus that increase good behavior
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punishment
- process decreases future probability of a response
| - uses punisher: stimulus that results in decrease of behavior
130
primary reinforcers
-reinforcing stimuli that satisfy motivational needs
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secondary reinforcers
-reinforcing stimuli that acquire value through learning
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positive reinforcement
-strengthening behavior by adding a reward
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negative reinforcement
-strengthening behavior by taking away the unwanted action
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positive punishment
-behavior decreases because it adds a scolding
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negative punishment
-decrease in behavior due to taking away a valued stimulus
136
extinction (operant conditioning)
- weakening of response when reinforcement is no longer available
- stop doing action because not being rewarded
137
discrimination stimulus (operant)
-cue that shows there will be a reinforcement
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stimulus control
-discriminative stimulus reliably elicits a specific response
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generalization (operant)
-operant response takes place to a new stimulus that is similar to the stimulus present during learning
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discrimination (operant)
-operant response is made to one stimulus and not another
141
shaping
- procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response
- step by step learning
142
schedules on reinforcement
-rules that determine when reinforcement is available
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continuous reinforcement
-every response results in reinforcement
144
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
-only a certain number of responses are rewarded or certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available
145
fixed ratio schedule
-reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been completed
146
variable ratio schedule
- number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies
- rewarded after random responses
147
fixed interval schedule
- reinforced first response occurring after a set of time passes
- set time schedules for reinforcement
148
variable interval schedule
- first response is reinforces following a variable amount of time
- reinforcement is at random times
149
applying punishment
- severity
- initial punishment level
- contiguity
- consistency
- show alternatives
150
severity
-should be proportional to offense
151
initial punishment level
-must be strong enough to reduce behavior
152
contiguity
-punishment occurs immediately following behavior
153
consistency
-punishment must have after every time behavior occurs
154
show alternative
-punishment is more successful if paired with reinforcement for good behavior
155
Latent Learning
- Edward Tolman (psychologist)
| - learning that isn't immediately expressed by a response until organism is reinforced for doing so
156
successful long term learning
- organize info instead of rearrange to make connections to help understand
- distribute studying across time
- create difficulties
157
observational learning
- change behavior and knowledge from watching others
- cultural customs : learn from parents
- Albert Bandura and bobo doll
- need attention, memory, motivation
158
imitation
- recreating a motor behavior or expression often to accomplish a specific goal
- children and chimps opened box after being showed few steps
