EXAM 3: CHAPTER 7 Flashcards
Learning
A process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or capabilities
Two categories of learning:
- Associative learning: Learning formed between two or more stimulus (eg. Cringing at the sound of a dental drill because you associate the sound with the pain)
- Non-associative learning: Learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli
Two categories of non-associative learning:
- Habituation: Weakening of response to a stimulus after repeated presentation (eg. Cat seeing you as a threat and is scared, but overtime becomes friendly because they don’t see you as a threat)
- Sensitization: A strong stimulus that results in increased responsiveness (eg. Cat knocks over a lamp and you feel startled. Later on, you might freak out at another auditory stimuli like ringing of cellphone)
Dishabituation
Learning whereby there is a recovery of attention to the following habituation. (eg. Accidentally stepping on the cat’s tail and is now seeing you as a threat once again)
Two categories of associative learning:
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
Associative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response (eg. Cringing at the sound of thunder, but then later on cringing at the sight of lightening because you associate it with the sound)
Natural reflex
An automatic involuntary response that typically occurs without learning
Ivan Pavlov (3)
- Studied salivary reflex with dogs. He noticed that dogs were salivating even when the food itself wasn’t present, but began to when lab assistants arrived, which signaled for food
- Studied digestive system for two decades
- Won Nobel Prize in physiology
4 basic components of classical conditioning:
- Unconditioned stimulus (US): Stimulus that on its own elicits a response
- Unconditioned response (UR): Physical response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus; does not need to be learned
- Conditioned stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired
- Conditioned response (CR): Physical response elicited by a conditioned stimulus; acquired through experience and is usually same as unconditioned response
4 basic components of classical conditioning in Pavlov’s dog experiment:
- US: Meat powder
- UR: To salivate
- CS: Lab assistant
- CR: Salivation
Examples of classical conditioning (4):
- Feeling anxious at the sight of police car, even if you do nothing wrong
- Thinking of an ex when you smell cologne
- Veterans who feel frightened when they smell fuel
- Sexually abused child who sees a male
Stimulus generalization
What occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response
Stimulus discrimination
Loss of generalization. Learns to respond to only one tone
Extinction
The gradual weakening of a conditioned response resulting in a behavior stopping, or going extinct, over time
Spontaneous recovery
Re-emergence of a conditioned response sometime after extinction has occurred
Drug use
Begins when individual experiences the effects of a drug as pleasurable
Drug dependency
Involves the psychological and physiological experiences that occurs as the individual continues to use the drug
Withdrawal
Psychological and physical discomfort and distress experienced when body is deprived of that substance it has adapted to
Tolerance
Involves a number of factors, including possible changes at the cellular level in response to the drug
John B Watson beliefs
Believes that human emotions and environment plays an important role in shaping individuals
Little Albert experiment
Conducted by John B Watson to see if little albert would fear rats when associated with a hammer noise. This resulted in little Albert to also fear of other fluffy animals like rabbits
Phobias
Persistent, irrational or obsessive fear of a specific object or situation that may arise as a result of a fear conditioning
Systematic desensitization
Exposure therapy. Process used to condition the extinction of phobias
Phobia activation in the brain
involve abnormal activity in the amygdala
Conditioned taste aversion
Learning an association between a particular food and subsequent stomach illness (eg. Eating chips at the beach and then feeling ill later on due to heat. But now you cant bare to eat chips)
Arachnophobia
Fear of spiders
Operant conditioning
Form of associative learning where behavior is modified depending on consequences
Puzzlebox
Experiment conducted by Edward Thorndike to create a cage which placed a hungry cat with an attempt to escape
Law of effect
Law that states any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.
Behaviourism
Systematic study and manipulation of observable behavior
Reinforcer
An experience that produces an increase in a certain behavior
Statistics of Canadians that self-harm
13%
Positive reinforcement
Increases the probability that a particular behavior will occur by adding a pleasant stimulus
Negative reinforcement
Increases a specific behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus Reinforcement always increases the likelihood that a specific behavior will be repeated
Punishment
Decreases a particular behavior
Negative punishment
Removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behavior to decrease probability of behavior being repeated (eg. Child is late for curfew so his parents take his phone)
Positive punishment
Add a consequence to unwanted behavior so that they change. (eg. Spanking a child after throwing a tantrum)
Primary punisher
Stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism (eg. Punching, hitting, slapping)
Secondary punisher
Stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher (eg. Disapproval, bad grades, criticism)
Primary reinforcer
Stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsically rewarding (eg. Food, water, sexual partners). They satisfy biological needs
Secondary reinforcer
Neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer (eg. Verbal praise, toys, grades and money earned from good behavior)
Why is positive reinforcement more effective than punishment
Reinforcement is effective at establishing new and more appropriate behaviors. Physical punishment is associated with long-term problems such as low self-esteem, poor self-concept and lack of interpersonal skills
Guidelines for effective punishment (6):
- Mild
- Occurs immediately following incorrect behavior
- Negative punishment (eg. Timeout) is more effective than positive punishment
- Consistency
- Combined with explanation
- Must be a valid reason
Continuous reinforcement
What occurs when behavior is reinforced every time it occurs
Intermittent or partial reinforcement
Schedule of reinforcement where the behavior is followed by reinforcement only some of the time
Fixed ratio schedule
Schedule of reinforcement that occurs after a specific number of responses (eg. Free coffee after 9th purchase)
Variable ratio schedule
Schedule of reinforcement that occurs when the number of responses required for reinforcement is unpredictable
Fixed interval schedule
Schedule of reinforcement that occurs every time a specific time period elapsed (eg. Getting paycheque every week)
Variable interval schedule
Schedule of reinforcement that occurs after varying amounts of time (eg. Work breaks occur at unpredictable intervals)
Shaping
Introducing new behavior by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behavior (eg. Giving a dog a treat every time it is close to doing the trick that is being trained)
Behavior modification
Systematic approach to change behavior using principles of operant conditioning (eg. Giving a disruptive child who likes video games stickers every time he is quiet. After getting a certain amount of stickers, he is allowed to play games)
Learned helplessness
State that occurs after a person has experienced a stressful situation repeatedly and believe they are unable to control or change situation
Observational learning
Learning that occurs without overt training in response to watching the behavior of others
Modelling
What occurs when an observer learns from behavior of another
Albert Bandura
Conducted experiment to see whether children learned aggressive behavioral responses by observing aggression. Children watched a movie about a women beating up a Bobo doll. Later, the children were allowed to play in a room with bobo dolls to see if they would display aggressive behavior
Vicarious learning
Learning that occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another’s action and then chooses to duplicate the behavior
Mirror neurons
Neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform
Implicit learning
Learning that occurs without awareness
Spatial navigation learning
Learning that involves forming associations among stimuli relevant to navigating in space
Latent learning
Form of learning that is not expressed until there is a reward or incentive
Insight learning
Sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts
Semantic learning
Learning based on solid comprehension
Episodic learning
Process of storing experiences in one’s memory and retrieving that information to improve behavior
Key factors of learning (3):
- Timing
- Context
- Awareness/attention
Acquisition phase
Initial learning of the stimulus response relationships
B.F Skinner beliefs:
- Organisms don’t simply respond to the environment, but rather they exert influence on it
- Behaviors that are followed by favourable consequences will likely be repeated
B.F Skinner’s three types of consequences on operant:
- A neutral consequence neither increases or decreases the probability that the response will recur
- Reinforcement strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur
- Punishment weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur
3 term contingency of operant conditioning:
- Discriminative stimulus
- Response
- Reinforcer
Instinctive drift
Tendency of an animal to revert to unconscious and automatic behavior that interferes with learned behavior from operant conditioning
Social cognitive theories
Theories that emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations and beliefs
Two types of observational learning:
- Vicarious learning
- Mirror neurons
