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PATHO > Exam 3: Cancer, Hem, Vasc, Card > Flashcards

Exam 3: Cancer, Hem, Vasc, Card Flashcards

cancer, hemo, vasc, cardiac

1
Q

tumor

A

localized swelling

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2
Q

neoplasm

A

tumor caused by hyperplasia

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3
Q

hyperplasia

A

cell proliferation

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4
Q

benign neoplasm

A

noninvasive, encapsulated neoplasm that resembles tissue of origin

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5
Q

malignant neoplasm

A

cancer
divided rapidly and unremittingly

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6
Q

characteristics of a malignant neoplasm

A

anaplasia
invasive
poorly differentiated

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7
Q

anaplasia

A

undifferentiated
not normal adult cells

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8
Q

cancer grading

A

based on histology
1. well differentiated/mild dysplasia
2. moderate differentiated/moderate dysplasia
3. poor differentiated/severe dysplasia
4. moderate anaplasia
5. severe anaplasia

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9
Q

cancer staging

A

based on spread
0- in situ
1- localized
2- limited spread within an organ
3. regional spread and to lymph nodes
4- distant metastasis

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10
Q

cellular characteristics of malignancy

A

autonomous
anaplastic
dysplastic
immortal
angiogenic

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11
Q

autonomous

A

self sufficiency to growth signals (being independent of normal cellular control)
insensitivity to antigrowth or apoptotic signals

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12
Q

anaplastic

A

loss of differentiation

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13
Q

dysplastic

A

loss of contact inhibition/anchorage dependence

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14
Q

immortal

A

cells do not reach the Hayflick limit of cell division
cells resist apoptosis

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15
Q

angiogenic

A

cells receive own blood supply (VEGF)

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16
Q

carcinoma

A

cancerous tumor of epithelial origin

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17
Q

sarcoma

A

cancerous tumor of mesenchymal origin

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18
Q

mole

A

benign neoplasia of melanocyte

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19
Q

melanoma

A

malignant neoplasia of melanocyte

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20
Q

fibroma

A

benign proliferation of fibroblasts

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21
Q

fibrosarcoma

A

malignant neoplasia of fibroblasts

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22
Q

osteoma

A

benign neoplasia of osteocytes

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23
Q

osteosarcoma

A

malignant neoplasia of osteocytes

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24
Q

teratoma

A

monster cancer
malignant only

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25
Q

leukemia

A

malignant neoplasia of bone marrow
malignant only

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26
Q

signs of melanoma

A

asymmetric
borders uneven
coloring uneven
diameter changing
enlarging

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27
Q

post oncogens

A

cell cycle activators
gain of function

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28
Q

tumor suppressor genes

A

cell cycle inhibitors
loss of function

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29
Q

multi hit theory

A

multiple mutations are needed before malignancy occurs
based off of idea that incidence vs age is nonlinear

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30
Q

carcinogens

A

base analogs
radiation
chemical mutagens
intercalators
viruses

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31
Q

intercalators

A

things that fit between the 2 strands of DNA helix

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32
Q

chemotherapy drug goal

A

stop cell replication and division

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33
Q

radiation goal

A

damage to DNA to shrink tumor

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34
Q

a blood tube looks like…

A

erythrocytes on bottom
leukocytes + platelets middle
plasma stays on top

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35
Q

plasma

A

55% of total blood
91% water, 7% protein, 2% other organic molecules and electrolytes

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36
Q

protein

A

albumin- maintains osmotic pressure
globulins
fibrinogen

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37
Q

organic molecules

A

glucose
amino acids

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38
Q

globulins

A

alpha- HDL, steroids
beta- LDL, transferrin
gamma- antibodies, IgG

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39
Q

formed elements

A

45% of total blood
erythrocytes
platelets
leukocytes

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40
Q

what produces platelets

A

megakaryocytes

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41
Q

leukocytes

A

neutrophils 60%
lymphocytes 30%
monocytes,eosinophils,basophils 10%

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42
Q

lymphocytes

A

T cells 70%
B cells 25%
NK cells 5%

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43
Q

erythrocytes and platelets…

A

do NOT have nuclei
are NOT true cells

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44
Q

no nuclei=

A

no DNA
unable to transcribe RNA
therefore no protein
have a short life span because they cannot repair damage

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45
Q

where are formed elements produced

A

hematopoietic stem cells
aka pluripotent cells
located in the bone marrow

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46
Q

what gives erythrocytes their red color

A

hemoglobin
300Hgb per RBC

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47
Q

shape of erythrocyte

A

biconcave disc

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48
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

more red
oxygen bound

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49
Q

deoxyhemoglobin

A

changes shape and color
is blue/purple
nonoxygenated

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50
Q

oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve

A

O2 binds Hgb in a cooperative way
nonlinear, sigmoidal

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51
Q

“to the right”

A

binding oxygen more loosely
Hgb dumps off O2 more efficiently

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52
Q

factors that shift curve to the right

A

increased H ions, decreased pH
increased PCO2, decreased pH
increased temp
increased DPG (r/t high altitude or congenital heart disease)

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53
Q

spleen

A

lymphoid organ
houses leukocytes
acts as a blood filter

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54
Q

hematopoiesis

A

occurs in axial skeleton bone marrow
blood formation

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55
Q

adults have

A

2 alpha and 2 beta

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56
Q

fetuses have

A

alpha, beta, gamma
higher affinity for Hgb

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57
Q

erythropoietin

A

hormone epo
stimulates bone marrow to produce RBCs

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58
Q

erythropoesis

A

formation of red blood cells

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59
Q

anemia

A

erythrocyte deficit
deficiency of vitamin b12 or folic acid

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60
Q

vitamin b12 and folic acid are

A

necessary but not sufficient

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61
Q

stem cell considerations

A

can make more stem cells
can differentiate

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62
Q

erythropoietin feedback

A

1.hypoxia
2. renal cortex senses hypoxia
3. erythropoietin secreted
4. bone marrow stimulation
5. bone marrow stimulation triggers erythropoiesis
6. normoxia
7. renal cortex senses normoxia
8. decreased erythropoietin

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63
Q

anytime the kidneys sense hypoxia

A

epo is produced until tissue reaches normal oxygen level

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64
Q

4 heme’s

A

heme oxygenase
biliverdin
biliverdin reductase
bilirubin

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65
Q

jaundice

A

accumulation of bilirubin r/t too erythrocyte degradation

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66
Q

etiology of anemia

A

hemorrhage
decreased erythropoiesis
increased erythrocytic destruction

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67
Q

koilynchia

A

spoon nails r/t anemia

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68
Q

glossitis

A

tongue inflammation
loss of papillae
r/t anemia

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69
Q

clinical manifestations of anemia

A

claudication
dyspnea
dizziness
pallor

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70
Q

compensatory mechanisms of anemia

A

tachycardia
tachypnea
increased DPG in blood
increased renin+ erythropoietin

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71
Q

hemolytic anemia

A

normocytic and normochromic
maturing normally but making less RBC’s

72
Q

iron deficiency anemia

A

microcytic and hypochromic
small cells with less Hgb pigment

73
Q

pernicious anemia

A

macrocytic and normochromic
large unmature cells r/t vitb12 deficiency

74
Q

sickle cell anemia

A

congenital
stack and clog arteries

75
Q

polycthemia

A

erythrocyte surplus

76
Q

sed rate

A

erythrocyte sedimentation rate

77
Q

high sed rate

A

sink faster
inflammation, diabetes, old age, cancer, anemia

78
Q

low sed rate

A

sink slower
sickle cell, young age, polycythemia

79
Q

hemostasis

A

blood clotting
damaged endothelial lining triggers thrombocytes, VWF, fibroblasts
therefore fibrinogen then fibrin

80
Q

how does fibrinogen form fibrin

A

fibrinogen must be cut off to activate and form fibrin

81
Q

how is clot formed

A

thrombocytes grab fibrin

82
Q

left side of heart

A

sends oxygenated blood to body tissues through aorta

83
Q

right side of heart

A

sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs

84
Q

arteries

A

take blood away from heart
increased pressure decreased volume
no valves
thick walls (especially tuna media)

85
Q

veins

A

take blood into the heart
decreased pressure
increased volume
valves
thin walls

86
Q

what cells are in tunica intima

A

endothelial cells

87
Q

what cells are in tunica media

A

pseudostratified cells

88
Q

what cells are in tunica adventitia

A

fibroblasts

89
Q

vasoconstriction causes

A

increased blood pressure

90
Q

vasodilation causes

A

decreased blood pressure

91
Q

blood vessel resistance increases with

A

increased blood viscosity
increase length of vessel

92
Q

primary hypertension

A

idiopathic or genetic
manifestations: nose bleeds, headache

93
Q

if a protein ends in -ogen

A

it needs to be cleaved to become activated

94
Q

thrombus

A

stationary clot

95
Q

embolus

A

travelling clot

96
Q

Right sided embolus

A

pulmonary embolism

97
Q

left sided embolus

A

MI or stroke

98
Q

turbulent blood flow causes

A

clotting

99
Q

renin-angiotensin aldosterone system

A
  1. angiotensinogen (inactive protein)
  2. renin cleaves off part of angiotensinogen, becoming angiotensin
  3. angiotensin is modified by ACE enzyme to form angiotensin 2
  4. angiotensin 2 tells kidneys to retain fluid and vessels to constrict
  5. constricted vessels=increased blood pressure
100
Q

what does renin do

A

cleaves off a part of angiotensinogen to become angiotensin

101
Q

what does ACE enzyme do

A

modifies angiotensin to form angiotensin 2

102
Q

what does angiotensin 2 do

A

tells kidneys to retain fluid and vessels to constrict

103
Q

what does constricted vessels do

A

increases blood pressure

104
Q

atherosclerosis

A

arterial hardening caused by waxy deposits in the wall of the artery
causes turbulent blood flow

105
Q

aneurysm

A

localized dilation of vessel wall
only surgical treatment

106
Q

false aneurysm

A

clot forms from hemorrhage related to damage of adventitia

107
Q

most common site of aneurysm

A

descending aorta
bc less supporting structures

108
Q

aortic dissection

A

a tear through the tunica intima and media of the aorta.
often r/t trauma

109
Q

thromboangiitis obliterans

A

occlusion of artery
manifestations: claudication, artery obstruction
treat w vasodilators
high risk: nicotine + testosterone

110
Q

varicose veins

A

pooled blood leading to bulging veins
valve damage and decreased connective tissue support

111
Q

deep vein thrombosis

A

blood clot forms in a large vein

112
Q

superior vena cava syndrome

A

progressive occlusion of super vena cava
causes distention of upper vasculature (upper body, facial edema)

113
Q

MRA vs CAT scan

A

MRI has higher resolution

114
Q

apex of heart

A

bottom of the heart (ventricles)
points posterior

115
Q

intraventricular septum

A

between left and right ventricles

116
Q

atria

A

thin walled because have less pressure

117
Q

semilunar valves

A

aortic and pulmonic

118
Q

aortic valve

A

between left ventricle and aorta

119
Q

pulmonic valve

A

between right ventricle and pulmonic artery

120
Q

atrioventricular valves

A

tricuspid and mitral valve

121
Q

tricuspid valve

A

right AV valve
btw right atria and ventricle

122
Q

mitral valve

A

left AV valve, “bicuspid”
between left atria and ventricle

123
Q

chordae tendonae

A

hold valves in place and prevent regurgitation

124
Q

cardiac cycle

A
  1. atrial systole
  2. ventricular contraction
  3. ejection
  4. ventricular relaxation
  5. ventricular filling
125
Q

atrial systole

A

blood pushed into ventricles

126
Q

ventricular systole

A

isovolumetric contraction so pressure in ventricles equals pressure in arteries

127
Q

ejection

A

ventricular pressure increases and exceeds pressure in arteries

128
Q

ventricular diastole

A

pressure drops so ventricles relax

129
Q

ventricular filling

A

blood from veins enter the heart as vein pressure exceeds ventricular pressure

130
Q

endocardium

A

innermost layer with endothelial cells

131
Q

myocardium

A

muscle middle layer with striated skeletal cells

132
Q

epicardium

A

“serious pericardium”
“visceral” inner layer of pericardiam

133
Q

parietal pericardium

A

outermost layer

134
Q

cardiac tamponade

A

excess fluid in pericardial space, making the heart fluid deficient

135
Q

atrial systole

A

AV valves open and SV valves close

136
Q

ventricular systole

A

AV valves close and SV vaves open

137
Q

2 major arteries

A

Left coronary artery
Right coronary artery

138
Q

“widow maker”

A

LAD (anterior interventricular)

139
Q

coronary angiogram

A

great for viewing coronary arteries
utilizes contrast dye and CXR

140
Q

cardiomyocytes

A

heart muscle cells
striated w myosin + actin

141
Q

intercalated discs

A

contain proteins that connect one cardiomyocyte to another.
contain gap junctions

142
Q

gap junctions

A

allows for electric conduction
when one contracts, the other contracts= functional snysynium

143
Q

functional synsynium

A

when one contracts the other contracts

144
Q

depolarize

A

contract

145
Q

repolarize

A

relax

146
Q

P wave

A

atrial depolarization

147
Q

QRS complex

A

ventricular depolarization

148
Q

T wave

A

ventricular repolarization

149
Q

PR interval

A

measure of time interval from atrial electrical activity to ventricular electrical activity

150
Q

Na/K pump

A

3 Na out
2 K in

151
Q

during depolarization…

A

Na channels open and flood in, opening Ca channels which flood Ca in, making the myocardial cells squeeze

152
Q

1st heart sound

A

closure of AV valves
QRS complex
ventricular depolarization
pressure increases

153
Q

2nd heart sound

A

closure of SL valves
T wave
ventricular repolarization
decreased pressure

154
Q

premature ventricular contraction (PVC’s)

A

spontaneous depolarization of ventricular cardiomyocytes
feels like heart is skipping a beat
can be treated by cardiac ablation

155
Q

heart block

A

miscommunication btw atria and ventricles
due to damage to the heart’s conduction system

156
Q

coronary artery disease (CAD)

A

atherosclerosis in coronary artery
leads to MI bc thrombus that forms and causes ischemia

157
Q

anginapectoris

A

chest pain due to intermittent myocardial ischemia
treat w aspirin + nitro

158
Q

angioplasty

A

inflate a catheter balloon to compress plaque

159
Q

stent placement

A

inflate a catheter balloon containing a metal stent to hold artery open more permanently

160
Q

acute coronary syndrome

A

MI, complete occlusion
irreversible damage
troponin I and II present

161
Q

fluroscopy

A

real time xrays used for coronary angiogram

162
Q

inflammation always =

A

fibrotic deposition

163
Q

coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)

A

use a vein from the leg to bypass an occlussion in the heart

164
Q

stenosis

A

stiffening
prevents total valvular opening and closing

165
Q

stenosed mitral valve

A

allows regurgitation into left atrium and prevents blood flow into left ventricle

166
Q

mitral valve prolapse

A

blood gets into left atrium rather than left ventricle out thru aorta and out to body

167
Q

doppler echocardiogram

A

ultrasound visualizing blood
confirms heart sounds

168
Q

cardiomyopathy

A

heart muscle disease
3 types: dilated, hypertrophic, restrictive
subtle changes in heart proteins can cause

169
Q

dilated cardiomyopathy

A

decreased ejection fraction

170
Q

hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

A

heart becomes thick and distorted
often occurs as compensation

171
Q

restrictive cardiomyopathy

A

stiffening of myocardium
doesnt allow heart to fill well

172
Q

ductus arteriousus

A

shunts blood from pulmonary arteries to aorta

173
Q

foramen ovale

A

shunts blood from right atria to left atria

174
Q

2 mechanisms in congential hearts

A

ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale

175
Q

arterial septal defect

A

hole between atria when foramen ovale does not collapse

176
Q

ventricular septal defect

A

hole between ventricle
more serious

PATHO (4 decks)

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