Exam 3 Flashcards
Epidermis
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Dermis
Dense irregular tissue
Keratinized
Change or become changed into a form containing keratin.
Keratinized
Protects deep tissue from abrasion, found on the sole of the foot and palms of hand.
Non-keratinized
Must be kept moist from bodily secretions to to prevent drying out, found in the lining of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, lining of vagina and anus.
5 Layer of Epidermis/ deep to superficial
Stratum Basale, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Lucidum (thick only), Stratum Corneum
Stratum Basale/Stratum Germinative/Basal Layer
Deepest layer, single layer of cuboidal to lower columnar cells tightly attached to an underlying basement membrane that separates the epidermis from the connective tissue or adjacent dermis.
Stratum Basale/Stratum Germinativum/Basal Layer Cells
Keratinocytes: dead, divide to generate new cells.
Melanocytes: Alive, produce and store pigment melanin.
Tactile cells/Merkel Cells: Alive, sensitive to touch, when compressed release chemicals that stimulate sensory nerve endings providing info about objects touching skin.
Stratum Spinosum/Spiny Layer
Made up of several layers of polygonal keratinocytes. Each time a keratinocyte stem cell divides, a daughter cell is pushed to the external surface of the Stratum Basale. Once it enters the Stratum Spinosum, it begins to differentiate into non-dividing, highly specialized keratinocyte.
Stratum Spinosum/Spiny Layer Cells
Epidermal Dendritic Cells: Alive, immune cells that help fight infection.
Stratum Granulosum/Granular Layer
Consists of 3-5 layers of keratinocytes superficial to the Stratum Spinosum. Process of Keratinization begins here.
Stratum Granulosum/Granular Layer Cells
Keratinized Cells: Dead, because there is no nucleus or organelles but are structurally strong because of the keratin it contains.
Stratum Lucidum/Clear Layer
Thick skin only, is a thin translucent region of dead skin cells about 2-3 cell layers that is superficial to the Stratum Granulosum. Located on the palms of hands and soles of feet.
Stratum Lucidum/Clear Layer Cells
Keratinocytes that are flattened and filled with translucent protein called eledin. This layer helps protect from UV light.
Stratum Corneum/Hornlike Layer
Is the most superficial layer of the epidermis. Is the Stratum you see when you look at your skin.
Stratum Corneum/Hornlike Layer Cells
20-30 layers of dead, Anucleate cells that are scaly, interlocking keratinized Cells. Functions as a barrier.
Where does keratinization begin?
In the Stratum Granulosum
What are the differences in thick and thin skin?
Thick skin has stratum Lucidum, thin skin does not.
Thick skin
Found on palms of hands and soles of feet and has no hair follicles or oil glands.
Thin Skin
Covers most of the body, and has hair follicles and oil glands.
What combination helps give skin color and tone?
Hemoglobin, melanin, carotene
Albinism
Inherited recessive condition where enzyme needed to produce melanin is non-functional. Individuals have White hair, pale skin, and pink irisis.
Nevus
Commonly called a mole, is a harmless overgrowth of melanocytes.
Freckle
Yellowish or brown spots that represent localized areas of increased melanocyte activity. Degree of pigmentation depends on sun exposure and hereditary.
Hemangioma
An anomaly that results in skin discoloration due to blood vessels that proliferate to form a benign tumor.
Friction Ridge
Type of skin marking, found on contours of skin such as fingertips, palms, soles and toes. Increase friction and allow for identification of individuals since they are unique to each person.
Cleavage Lines
Tension lines in the skin that identify predominant orientation of colleges fiber bundles. These lines are taken into consideration during surgery.
What are the two layers of the Dermis?
Papillary Layer and Reticular Layer
Papillary Layer
Superficial layer of the dermis, composed of areolar connective tissue
Reticular Layer
Deepest layer of Dermis, composed of dense irregular tissue
Why are tattoos permanent?
Dye is injected into the dermis which does not have rapid cell turnover, which means the dye will remain in the area for a long time.
Hypodermis
Subcutaneous Layer/superficial Fascia. Not considered part of the integument. Has both areolar and adipose connective tissue.
Vasoconstriction
Diameters of the vessels narrow, so less blood can travel through them.
Vasodilation
Diameter of the vessels increases, so more blood can travel through them.
Integumentary system structures derived from epidermis
Nails, hair, and exocrine glands of the skin.
Yellow Nail Syndrome
Occurs when growth and thickening of nails slows or stops entirely. Outward sign of respiratory disease or chronic bronchitis
Spoon Nails
Nail malformation where the outer surface of the nails are concave instead of convex. Frequently a sign of iron deficiency.
Beau’s Lines
Run horizontally across the nail and indicate a temporary interference with nail growth at the time the nail was formed. Sign of chronic malnutrition.
Two types of Exocrine Glands
Sweat Glands and Sebaceous Glands
Merocrine Glands
Secretes Sweat/ cools the body down/ most widely distributed cells
Apocrine Glands
Secrete fat droplets into breast milk and fat droplets into the ear to produce ear wax.
Ceruminous Glands
Modified apocrine sweat glands only in the ear canal, where they secrete a waterproof ear wax called cerumen.
Mammary Glands
Of the breasts are modified apocrine sweat glands. Both male and female have them. Only become functional in pregnant/lactating females and produce milk to feed offspring.
Difference between Merocrine, Apocrine, and Holocrine glands?
Merocrine secretion does not damage the cell. Aprocrine: part of the cell breaks off and is released. Holocrine Secretion: destroys the whole cell.
Regeneration
The replacement of damaged or dead cells with the same cell type.
Fibrosis
The process of scar tissue deposition during healing, serves to bind damaged parts together.
Psoriasis
Chronic autoimmune skin disease that has periods of flare-ups and remissions. The normal sloughing-off cycle of keratinocytes is thrown out of balance and the cells develop into patches of white scaly skin
Greatest risk factor for skin cancer?
Chronic exposure to UV rays and fair-skinned individuals, especially those who had sever sunburns and children.
Cyanosis
Bluish discoloration of the skin resulting from poor circulation or inadequate oxygenation of the blood.
Bruise
Blood or bleeding under the skin due to trauma; typically black and blue at first, with color changes as healing progresses.
Jaundice
Yellowing of the skin and eyes that occurs when the liver’s ability to eliminate bilirubin is impaired.
Mechanoreceptor
Responds to distortion of the plasma membrane that occurs due to touch, pressure, vibration and stretch.
Encapsulated sensory receptor
Has a special capsule which enclosed a nerve ending.
Unencapsulated sensory receptor
No special structure and are basically free nerve endings. (Pain/temperature receptors)
Free Nerve Endings
Tactile receptors, either tonic receptors (adapt slowly) or phasic receptors (adapt quickly).
Where do free nerve cells reside and what do they detect?
Closest to the surface of the skin in the papillary Layer and detect temperature and pain stimuli and also detect light touch and pressure.
Root Hair Plexuses
Specialized terminal endings of sensory neurons that form a weblike sheath around hair follicles in their reticular layer of the dermis.
What do root hair plexuses detect?
Movement. Sends and receives nerve impulses to the brain when the hair moves.
Where are Merkel cells located and what do they detect?
Stratum Basale, light touch sensation
Where are End/Krause bulbs located?
Ensheathed in connective tissue found in the dermis of the skin, mucous membranes of the oral cavity, vagina and anal canal.
What do End/Krause bulbs detect?
Light pressure stimuli and low-frequency vibration
What does Pacinian Corpuacles Detect?
Continuous deep-pressure and high-frequency vibration stimuli.
Where is the Pacinian Corpuacles located?
Found deep within the reticular layer of the dermis of the skin, found in the hypodermis of the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, breasts, and external genitalia, and walls of some organs
Meissner’s Corpuscles
Are oval receptors formed from highly intertwined terminal endings of sensory neurons
What do Meissner’s Corpuscles detect?
Texture and shape of an object for light touch. Found on lips, palms, eyelids, nipples and genitals
What are the components of the skeletal system?
Bones of the skeleton, cartilage, ligaments, and other connective tissue that stabilized and connects bones.
What two types of bones make up the skeletal system?
Compact and spongy
What type of cartilage make up the skeletal system?
Hyaline and fibrocartilage
What composed the tendons and ligaments in the skeletal system?
Dense regular connective tissue
Compact Bone
Relatively dense connective bone tissue that appears white, smooth, and solid. Makes up 80% if the total bone mass.
Spongy Bone
Located internal to the compact bone, appears porous, and makes up 20% of total bone mass.
6 functions of bone
Support and protection, movement, hemopoiesis, storage of mineral and energy reserve.
4 classification of bone
Long, short, flat and irregular
Anatomy of the long bone
Grow by elongation of the diaphysis with an epiphysis at each end. Ends of epiphysis are covered with hyaline cartilage
Diaphysis
Shaft of the long bone, provides leverage and major weight support of a long bone
Epiphysis
The expanded knobby region at each end of a long bone
Articulate Cartilage
Covers the joint surface of an epiphysis and is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage. Helps reduce friction and absorb shock in moveable joints.
Metaphysis
Is the region in a mature bone sandwiched between the diaphysis and epiphysis.
Epiphyseal Plate
Growth plate; is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that provides continuous lengthwise growth of a bone
Periosteum
A tough sheath that covers the outer surface of the bone except for the areas covered by articulate cartilage
Endosteum
An incomplete layer of cells that covers all internal surfaces of the bone within the medullary cavity
Gross anatomy of short, flat, & irregular bones
External surface is composed of compact bone, the interior is composed entirely of spongy bone and there is no medullary cavity
Red bone marrow
Hemopoietic (blood cell forming) and contains reticular connective tissue, immature blood cells & fat
Yellow bone marrow
Once adulthood sets in, red bone marrow turns into a fatty yellow substance of the medullary cavity called yellow bone marrow
Osteoprogenitor Cell
Stem cells derived from mesenchyme
Osteoblasts
Formed from osteoprogenitor cells and perform the important function of synthesizing and secreting the initial semisolid organic bone matrix called osteoid.
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts that have lost their bone-forming ability when enveloped by calcifies osteoid
Osteoclasts
Large, multi nuclear phagocytes cells. Involved in breaking down bone through resorption
Bone reabsorption
Is the process whereby bone matrix is destroyed by substances released by osteoclasts into the extraceullar space adjacent to the bone
What vitamins and minerals make up bone?
Vitamin D, Vitamin C, calcium and phosphate
Structure of Hyaline Cartilage
Glassy-Appearing matrix; irregularly arranges chondrocytes in lacunae; usually covered by perichondrium. Looks like grape soda
Apposition growth
Is an increase in width along the cartilages’ outside edge or periphery
Interstitial growth
The lengthening of bone resulting from growth of cartilage and it’s replacement with bone tissue
Ossification/Osteogenesis
Refers to the formation and development of bone connective tissue. Begins in the embryo and continue as the skeleton grows during childhood and adolescence.
Intramembranous Ossification
Bone growth within a membrane- produces the fat bones of the skull, some facial bones, mandible and central part of clavicle.
Endochondral Ossification
essential processes during fetal development, system by which bone tissue is created.
Endochondral Ossification make what bones
Most bones of the skeleton, including upper and lower limbs, pelvis, vertebrae, and the ends of the clavicle
Interstitial Bone Growth
A lib bones growth in length, occurs in the hyaline cartilage in the epiphyseal plate
Appositional Bone Growth
Increases width of growing bones-Occurs at endosteal and periosteal surfaces.
Bone remodeling
The constant dynamic process of continual addition of new bone tissue (bone deposition) and removal of old bone tissue (bone resorption)
How does growth hormone affect bone growth and remodeling?
By stimulating the liver to form another hormone called insulin-like growth factor (IGF)
How does thyroid hormone affect bone growth and remodeling?
By influencing the basal metabolic rate of bone cells
How do parathyroid hormone and calcitonin regulate blood calcium levels?
Parathyroid hormone is released in response to low calcium levels. PTH and calcitrol increase the release of calcium from bone into blood by increasing osteoclasts activity. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium levels by stimulating calcium extortion by the kidneys
Osteoporosis
Is a disease that results in decreased bone mass and leads to weakened bones that are prone to fracture
Stress fracture
Is a thin break caused by increased physical activity in which the bone experiences repetitive loads. Seen in runners.
Pathological fracture
Usually occurs in bones weakened by disease.
Simple fracture
The broken bone does not penetrate the skin
Compound fracture
One or both ends of the broken bone pierces through the skin
4 steps of bone repair
- A fracture hematoma forms
- A fibrocartilaginous callus forms
- A hard callus forms
- The bone is remodeled
Axial skeleton
Composed of the bones along the central axis of the body to form a framework that supports and protects the organs.
What bones make up the Axial Skeleton?
Skull, Vertebral Column, Thoracic Cage
Appendicular Skeleton
Is the portion of Vertebras consisting of the bones that support the appendages
What bones make up the appendicular skeleton?
Bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles of bones that attach the upper and lower limbs to the axial skeleton,pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle
How many cranial bones are in the skull?
8
How many facial bones are there?
14
How many bones make up the orbit?
7
What are the passageways through the skull and what are passing through them?
Canals, fissures, and foramina. Blood vessels and nerves pass through them
Suture
Immovable joints that form the boundaries between the cranial bones
Where is the coronal suture
Extends laterally across the superior surface of the skull along a coronal plane
Where is the lambdoidal suture?
Extends like an arc across the posterior surface of the skull articulating with the parietal bones and the occipital bone
Where is the squamous suture?
On each side of the skull, articulates the temporal bone and the parietal bone of that side
Where is the Sagittal Suture?
Extends between the coronal and lambdoid sutures alone the midsagittal plane
Fontanelles
Flexible areas of dense regular connective tissue membrane. “Soft spots” on baby’s head. Allows flexion for the head to pass through the birth canal.
Paranasal sinuses
Air-filled chambers that open into the nasal cavities that help humidify and warm inhaled air
What effect do paranasal sinuses have on the skull?
The sinus spaces cause the skull bones to be lighter and provide resonance to voice
Male skull
Tend to be more robust (larger, sturdier, bulkier). More blunt supraorbital margin, prominent arch, square mental, sloping frontal bone
Female skull
Tend to be gracile (delicate, small). Thin, sharp supraorbital margin, arch not prominent, triangle mental, smooth external occipital protuberance
Hyoid bone
Slender, curved bone located inferior to the skull between the mandible and larynx (voice box)
What’s special about he Hyoid bone?
Does not articulate with any other bones in the skeleton
What is the Hyoid Bones function?
Serves as an attachment site for the tongue and larynx (voice box)
How many Vertebrae comprise the Vertebral Column?
24
Where do the curves in the spine come from?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral curvatures
Lordosis
Exaggerated lumbar curvature often called SWAYBACK that is seen as a protrusion of the abdomen and buttocks
Kyphosis
Exaggerated thoracic curvature that is directed posteriorly producing a HUNCHBACK look
Intervertebral Disc
Pads of fibrocartilage composed of an outer ring of fibrocartilage, called the annulus fibrosus and an inner gelatinous circular region called the nucleus pulposus
Annulus Fibrosus
Outer ring of fibrocartilage
Nucleus Pulposus
An inner gelatinous circular region
Components of the thoracic cage
Thoracic Vertebrae, ribs, sternum
What is the function of the thoracic cage?
Acts as a protective enclosure around the thoracic organs and also provides attachment point for many muscles
Differences between upper and lower limbs?
Lower limbs support our body weight and are responsible for moving our bodies when we walk or run upper limbs have been freed from these functions and are able to do other things like grasping objects and utilizing tools with our hands
Similarities between upper and lower limbs?
Proximal part of each limb has a girdle that holds the limbs in place distal part of each limb contains two long bones followed by multiple short bones and then numerous long bones in the hand and foot
Components and function of pectoral girdle?
Articulates with the trunk and supports the upper limbs, consist of the clavicle and scapulae
Components of the upper limb
Brachium, antebrachium, hand. Contains 30 bones: 1 humerus 1 radius and 1 ulna 8 carpal bones 5 metacarpal bones 14 phalanges
Pelvis
Composed of 4 bones:
Sacrum, coccyx, and the right and left ossa coxae. Protects and supports the viscera in the inferior part of the ventral body cavity
Pelvic girdle
Refers to both the left and right ossa coxae only, articulates with the trunk and provides an attachment point for each lower limb
Female pelvis
Shallower and wider than males. Ilium flares laterally, acetabulum projects more laterally and greater sciatic notch is narrower, deeper, and U shaped. Females have preauricular sulcus and males do not. Sacrum is shorter and wider; body of pubis is longer and rectangular
Male pelvis
Ilium projects more superiorly,does not have preauricular sulcus, pubis is longer and triangular
What bones make up the Os Coxae
Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis
What is Acetabulum
Deep, curved depression of the lateral surface of the Os Coxae that the femur articulates with
When do bones fuse together?
Adulthood
What bones compose the lower limb?
Thigh, leg, foot. Contains 30 bones: 1 femur 1 patella 1 tibia, 1 fibula 7 tarsal bones 5 metatarsal bones 14 phalanges
