Exam 3 Flashcards
intelligence
ability to direct one’s thinking, adapt to one’s circumstances, and learn from one’s experiences
Henry Goddard
one of the first to measure intelligence, discriminatory toward Ellis Island immigrants
Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon
developed the first intelligence test to identify children who needed remedial education — measure aptitude apart from achievement
first intelligence test
to identify children who needed remedial education
ratio IQ
dividing a person’s mental age by physical age x 100
deviation IQ
dividing a person’s test score by the average test score of people in the same age group x 100
data-based approach to describing middle-level abilities
starts with people’s responses on intelligence tests and then looks to see what kinds of independent clusters these responses form
theory-based approach
broadly surveys human abilities and then determines which ones intelligence tests measure (or fail to measure)
fluid intelligence
ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences
crystallized intelligence
ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience
Robert Sternberg suggested that there are three kinds of intelligence
analytic intelligence (problem solving) creative intelligence (novel solutions) practical intelligence (everyday)
heritability coefficient of intelligence
50%
heritability coefficient
the proportion of the difference between people’s scores that can be explained by differences in their genes
absolute intelligence
can change considerably over time
relative intelligence
generally stable over time
Flynn Effect
the average intelligence test score rises about 0.3% every year
how people of different ethnicities compare in terms of IQ scores
education increases intelligence
biggest reason why African Americans have lower intelligence scores than European Americans
education increases intelligence, beneficial neural changes can occur because of exercise, nutrition, and sleep
what percentage of zygotes do not complete the journey down the fallopian tube
about 50%
zygote
fertilized egg that contains chromosomes from both a sperm and an egg
germinal stage
2-week period that begins at conception
embryonic stage
2nd week until the 8th week
fetal stage
9th week until birth
myelination
formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron during the fetal stage
short eye openings, flat midface, indistinct ridge under nose, thin upper lip
fetal alcohol syndrome
cephalocaudal rule
‘top-to-bottom’ rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet
proximodistal rule
‘inside-to-outside’ rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery
cognitive development
emergence of the ability to think and understand—how the physical world works, how their minds represent it, how other minds represent it
assimilation
process by which infants apply their schemas in novel situations
accommodation
process by which infants revise their schemas in light of new information
object permanence
idea that continues to exist even when they are not visible
conservation
notion that quantitative properties of an object are invariable despite changes in the object’s appearance
sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)
infants acquire information about the world by sensing it and moving around with it
preoperational stage (2-6 years)
children have a preliminary understanding of the physical world
concrete operational stage (6-11 years)
children learn how various actions or operations can affect or transform concrete objects
formal operational stage (11+ years)
children can solve non-physical problems; abstract thinking
doesn’t communicate well, few friends, doesn’t understand the emotions of others, normal intelligence test score
autism
ability to learn from others—three fundamental skills
joint attention
social referencing
imitation
joint attention
ability to focus on what another person is focused on
social referencing
ability to use another person’s reactions as information about the world
imitation
ability to do what another person does
strange situation test
measures a child’s attachment style
attachment styles
secure, insecure: avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized attachment
quality of attachment between children and their mothers influenced most strongly by…
mother sensitivity and responsiveness
temperament
characteristic patterns of emotional reactivity—variant and stable
Kohlberg’s three stages of moral development
preconventional
conventional
postconventional
preconventional stage
childhood, morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor
conventional stage
adolescence, morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules
postconventional stage
adults, morality of an action is determined bya set of general principles that reflect core values
major task confronting 15-year-old Tony (according to Erik Erikson’s stages of human development)
to develop a sense of self in relationship to others and to own internal thoughts and desires
oral sensory
birth to 12-18 months, trust vs. mistrust
child develops a belief that the environment can be counted on to meet his or her basic physiological and social needs
muscular-anal
18 months-3 years, autonomy vs. shame/doubt
child learns what he or she can control and develops a sense of free will and corresponding sense of regret and sorrow for inappropriate use of self-control
locomotor
3-6 years, initiative vs. guilt
child learns to being action, to explore, to imagine, and to feel remorse for actions
latency
6-12 years, industry vs. inferiority
child learns to do things well or correctly in comparison to a standard or to others
adolescence
12-18 years, identity vs. role confusion
sense of self in relationship to others and to own internal thoughts and desires
young adulthood
19-40 years, intimacy vs. isolation
personal develops the ability to give and receive love; begins to make long-term commitment to relationships
middle adulthood
40-65 years, generativity vs. stagnation
person develops interest in guiding the development of the next generation
maturity
65-death, ego integrity vs. despair
person develops a sense of acceptance of life as it was lived and the importance of the people and relationships that the individual developed over the life span
socio-emotional selectivity theory
younger adults are oriented toward future-pertinent (useful) information while older adults focus on (positive) emotional satisfaction in the present, perhaps because of shortened futures
people’s overall happiness…
generally increases with age
formal operation stage of cognitive development
able to think about what might be, not just what is
technique most widely used by psychologists to collect information about someone’s personality structure
multiple choice / forced-choice
validity scales
alleviate response style biases
self-report
series of answers to a questionnaire that asks people to indicate the extent to which sets of statements or adjectives accurately describe their own behavior or mental state
MMPI-2
well-researched clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems
personality
individual’s characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling
Rorschach Inkblot Test
individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent’s inner feelings and interpret his/her personality structure
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
respondents reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people
strengths and weaknesses of the Rorschach Inkblot Test
???
trait
relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way
Cattell (1950) proposed a theory of personality consisting of how many factors?
5
big-5 personality factors
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, extraversion
psychodynamic approach
regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness—motives that can also produce (predict?) emotional desires
id
contains the drives present at birth, the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives
ego
component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life’s practical demands, how we see ourselves
superego
mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority
Sigmund Freud held that the ego operates on ???
the regulating mechanism that enables the individual to delay the gratification of immediate needs and operate effectively in the world
rationalization
supplying a reasonable-sounding explanation for unacceptable feelings and behavior to conceal one’s underlying motives or feelings
reaction formation
unconsciously replacing threatening inner wishes and fantasies with an exaggerated version of the opposite
projection
attributing one’s own threatening feelings, motives, or impulses to another person or group
regression
ego deals with the internal conflict and perceived threat by reverting to an immature behavior or earlier stage of development
displacement
shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less-threatening alternative
identification
helps deal with feelings of threat and anxiety by enabling us to unconsciously take on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or able to cope
sublimation
channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities
Teresa really liked and admired her sister Valerie. Valerie was a very good volleyball player, and Teresa felt that she herself was not very good at volleyball. However, when Teresa played volleyball, she started to act and talk like Valerie. Which defense mechanism did Teresa use when she played volleyball?
identification
self-actualization tendency
the human motive toward meeting our inner potential
flow
a state of focus from engagement in tasks that match our abilities
existential approach
regards personality as governed by an individual’s ongoing choices and decisions in the context of realities of life and death
social cognitive approach
views personality in terms of how the person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them
person-situation controversy
question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors
personal constructs
dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences (according to the social cognitive approach)
locus of control
person’s tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment
self-serving bias
people’s tendency to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures, to protect self-esteem
implicit egotism
people are generally unaware of their preference for things similar to themselves
name-letter effect
social influence
ability to control another person’s behavior
three basic motivations which make people susceptible to social influence
hedonic motive: pleasure is better than pain
approval motive
accuracy motive
social psychology
study of the causes and consequences of sociality
frustration-aggression hypothesis
principles stating that animals aggress only when their goals are thwarted
best predictor of aggression
gender (male)
“you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours”
cooperation? norm of reciprocity
passionate love
experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction
companionate love
experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a person’s well-being
social exchange
hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits
comparison level
cost-benefit ratio that people believe they deserve or could attain in another relationship
equity
state of affairs in which the cost-benefit ratios of the two partners are roughly equal
sunken-cost theories
predict that following great investment, individuals will settle for less than optimal cost-benefit ratios
why most American females marry
to have help caring for helpless offspring (more work than one caretaker can normally provide)???
people are more likely to leave bigger tips if the waitress gives customers a piece of candy with their bill
norm of reciprocity
door-in-the-face technique
strategy that uses reciprocating concessions to influence behavior - people agree to a smaller request after you make a larger one
Milgram experiment to get participants to keep shocking the learner?
paid them, also gave them probes
print ads for cars have more facts than print ads for clothing
systematic persuasion
heuristic persuasion
process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habit or emotion
vacuum salesman first gets you to let him vacuum your living room for free
foot-in-the-door technique
cognitive dissonance
unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs…one way to alleviate is to change your belief about the value of the thing you suffered for
social cognition
processes by which people come to understand others
covariation model
we rely on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
low consistency + high consensus (most people perform this action) + high distinctiveness (the person performs similar actions)
situational attribution
high consistency + low consensus + low distinctiveness
dispositional attribution
correspondence bias
tendency to make a dispositional attribution even when a person’s behavior was caused by the situation (fundamental attribution error)
actor-observer effect
tendency to make the situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of others
