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Anatomy 202 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of the Respiratory system?

A
  • gas exchange
  • speech and vocalizations
  • olfaction
  • pH balance
  • hormone synthesis or activation
  • pressure for flow of lymph and venous blood
  • lungs filter blood clots and small air bubbles
  • valsalva for urination, defecation, birth
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2
Q

What are the first line of filtration in the nose?

A

*guard hairs

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3
Q

What covers guard hairs?

A

*mucus

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4
Q

What type of tissue is found in the nasal cavity or conchae?

A

*pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

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5
Q

What does the nasal cavity or conchae do?

A

*warms and humidifies the air

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6
Q

How much mucous do you make in a day?

A
  • 1 quart
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7
Q

What do goblet cells secrete?

A

*mucous

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8
Q

What are some things in mucous?

A

*H2O, enzymes, lysozomes

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9
Q

What do lysozomes do?

A

*destroy pathogenic things

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10
Q

What is Charles Law?

A
  • gas expands when heated

* helps expand lung volume without muscular help

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11
Q

What is a common place for both digestion and respiration?

A

*pharynx

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12
Q

What is the voice box?

A

*larynx

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13
Q

What does the larynx house?

A

*vocal cord

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14
Q

What is the conducting division of the respiratory system?

A
  • passages that serve only for airflow (tubes that move the air, the rest of the system will be for gas exchange)
  • no gas exchange
  • nostrils through major bronchioles
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15
Q

What tissue is in the conducting division?

A

*mucous coated epithelium

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16
Q

Why is there no gas exchange in the conducting division?

A

*too thick

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17
Q

Why is cartilage on the trachea?

A

*to help keep it open

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18
Q

What are all bronchi lined with?

A

*ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

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19
Q

How do the cells grow in the bronchial tree?

A

*shorter and the epithelium thinner

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20
Q

What does the lamina propria have an abundance of?

A

*mucous glands and lymphocyte nodules

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21
Q

What is positioned to intercept inhaled pathogens?

A

*bronchus associated lymphoid tissue (BALT)

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22
Q

What do all divisions of bronchial tree have a large amount of?

A

*elastic connective tissue (contributes to the recoil that expels air from the lungs)

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23
Q

What type of tissue is at the level of exchange division?

A

*cuboidal epithelium with a layer of muscle surrounding it

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24
Q

What type of tissue do bronchioles have?

A

*smooth muscle and cuboidal

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25
Q

Is there mucous in the exchange region?

A

*no

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26
Q

What is the generation number of the exchange region?

A

*18-25 generations

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27
Q

What is the generation number in the conducting zone?

A

*17 generations

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28
Q

What are type I cells?

A
  • squamous epithelium

* thin (allow gas exchange)

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29
Q

What are type II cells?

A

*secretes respiratory surfactant

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30
Q

What does surfactant do?

A

*reduces surface tension across the membrane

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31
Q

What are dust cells (alveolar macrophage)?

A

*eats bacteria

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32
Q

What are the features of why gas exchange is so good?

A
  • gasses are lipid soluble
  • exchange surface areas are large
  • diffusion distance is short
  • pressure gradients are enormous
  • perfusion/ventilation are matched
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33
Q

What is boyles law?

A

*P=1/V

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34
Q

In boyles law if the volume is increased what will happen?

A

*pressure will drop

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35
Q

What is the covering over the lungs?

A

*visceral pleura

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36
Q

What is the covering over the walls?

A

*parietal pleura

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37
Q

What Law states that each gas in a mixture will exert a pressure in proportion to its concentration?

A

*Dalton’s law of partial pressure

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38
Q

What law states that the volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (at constant pressure?

A

*Charles law

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39
Q

What law states that gas will move into a solution in proportion to its partial pressure and solubility (at constant temperature)?

A

*henry’s law of solubility

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40
Q

What is air composed of?

A

*21% oxygen, 79% nitrogen and 0.001% carbon dioxide

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41
Q

What is atmospheric pressure at sea level?

A

*760mmHg

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42
Q

Total atmospheric pressure in Flagstaff is 600mmHg. The total atmospheric pressure on Mt. Everest is 235 mm Hg. Which of the following is the correct calculation for the partial pressure of oxygen on top of Everest (29,000ft)?

A

*21% X 235mmHg= 49mmHg

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43
Q

When gas expands as it warms up how does this help the lungs?

A

*helps inflate the lungs

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44
Q

In henry’s law of solubility the greater the pressure what happens?

A

*the greater number of gas molecules in solution

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45
Q

What does Patm stand for?

A

*partial pressure in atmosphere

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46
Q

What does PA stand for?

A

*partial pressure in alveoli

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47
Q

What does Pa stand for?

A

*partial pressure in the artery

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48
Q

What does Pv stand for?

A

*partial pressure in venous

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49
Q

What is the problem with the gasses?

A

*not very soluble

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50
Q

What percentage of O2 and CO2 can be dissolved in plasma?

A
  • 1.5% of O2 at 1atm pressure

* 7% of CO2

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51
Q

What happens during the slope of the curve (during the steep portion)?

A

*there is a shape change of Hb

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52
Q

What does higher temperature do to the curve?

A

*moves it to the right (Hb depends on temperature)

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53
Q

What does lower pH do to the curve?

A

*moves the curve to the right

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54
Q

What is always the partial pressure in the alveoli at sea level (as long as your breathing)?

A

*105mmHg

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55
Q

What is the process of carrying gasses from the alveoli to the systemic tissues and vice versa?

A

*gas transport

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56
Q

How is oxygen transported?

A
  • 98.5% bound to hemoglobin

* 1.5% dissolved in plasma

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57
Q

How is carbon dioxide transported?

A
  • 70% as bicarbonate
  • 23% bound to hemoglobin
  • 7% dissolved in plasma
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58
Q

O2 + Hb –>

A

*O2Hb (oxyhemoglobin)

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59
Q

The RBC picks up what?

A

*all the pressure from alveoli (which is like a water fall, RBC like a pick up truck wants to be full)

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60
Q

What is the P arterial O2?

A

*105mmHg

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61
Q

What is the P tissue O2?

A

*40mmHg (skeletal muscle takes it all)

62
Q

What is the goal of gas exchange?

A

*keep pressure high (higher the pressure, the bigger the driving force)

63
Q

What is steady state?

A

*readjusting the system to new demands

64
Q

Demand is where, and supply is where?

A

*demand is at the tissue and supply is at the lungs

65
Q

What at the tissue what kind of change is there?

A

*pH change, more H ions floating around, also get a temperature change

66
Q

When does the affinity go down?

A

*when warms it and when pH goes up and increase CO2

67
Q

What are the three forms carbon dioxide is transported in?

A

*carbonic acid, carbamino compounds, and dissolved in plasma

68
Q

What percentage of bicarb is transferred out of the plasma?

A

*70%

69
Q

What shift occurs at the tissue?

A

*chloride shift (bicarb out, Cl in)

70
Q

What percent of CO2 is hydrated to form carbonic acid?

A
  • 70%

* then dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions

71
Q

What enzyme does this CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+?

A

*carbonic anhydrase

72
Q

What percent binds to the amino groups of plasma proteins and hemoglobin to form carbamino compounds—chiefly carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)?

A

*23%

73
Q

Can hemoglobin transport O2 and CO2 simultaneously?

A

*yes

74
Q

What binds the H+ ion?

A

*hemoglobin

75
Q

What happens when hemoglobin binds the H+ ion?

A

*(HHb, change pH or hemoglobin becomes more acidic, dumps off more O2 easier)

76
Q

What does CO compete for?

A

*the O2 binding sites on the hemoglobin molecule

77
Q

What has a higher affinity for hemoglobin?

A

*CO

78
Q

What is CO?

A

*Colorless, odorless gas in cigarette smoke, engine exhaust, fumes from furnaces and space heaters

79
Q

What is Carboxyhemoglobin?

A

*CO binds to ferrous ion of hemoglobin

80
Q

What does carboxyhemoglobin do?

A
  • Binds 210 times as tightly as oxygen

* Ties up hemoglobin for a long time

81
Q

Why does CO poisoning cause a person to turn red?

A

*the shape of hemoglobin is changed (so it reflects light at different color)

82
Q

What is one reason why a person cannot fully saturate?

A

*altitude

83
Q

If we start working out what happens?

A

*we don’t have time in lung to load, compensate by adding more RBC

84
Q

What are some factors that affect Hb loading?

A
  • altitude

* disease

85
Q

What are some diseases that affect Hb loading?

A
  • cardio vascular
  • pulmonary insufficiencies
  • anemia
  • emphysema
86
Q

What does emphysema do?

A

*less SA, less time in lungs

87
Q

What is DRG?

A

*dorsal respiratory group

88
Q

What is VRG?

A

*ventral respiratory group

89
Q

Where do both the DRG and VRG have outputs to?

A
  • diaphragm, intercoastals (somatic output)

* muscles

90
Q

What happens when the inspiratory neurons are on?

A

*inhale

91
Q

What happens when the expiratory neurons are on?

A

*exhale

92
Q

What are some neural control of breathing?

A
  • voluntary control provided by motor cortex
  • inspiratory neurons
  • expiratory neurons
  • innervations
93
Q

What are innervations?

A
  • fibers of phrenic nerve supply diaphragm

* intercoastal nerves supply inercoastal muscle

94
Q

The automatic, unconscious cycle of breathing is controlled by what pairs of respiratory centers in the reticular formation of the medulla oblongata and the pons?

A
  • respiratory nuclei in medulla
    • VRG
    • DRG
    • pons (pontine respiratory group)
95
Q

What does the VRG do?

A
  • primary generator of the respiratory rhythm (basic rhythm)

* produces a respiratory rhythm of 12 breath per minute

96
Q

How long does the inspiratory neurons fire for?

A

*about 2 seconds

97
Q

How long does the expiratory neurons fire for?

A

*3 seconds (shut off inspiratory neurons)

98
Q

What does the DRG have an effect on?

A

*the VRG

99
Q

What is the DRG?

A
  • forced breathing
  • modifies the rate and depth of breathing
  • receives influences from external sources
100
Q

When you are working out what is involved? (DRG or VRG?

A

*DRG

101
Q

What does the DRG respond to?

A

*levels of gases

102
Q

What does the pons (PRG) do?

A
  • modifies rhythm of the VRG by outputs to both the VRG and DRG
  • adapts breathing to special circumstances such as sleep, exercise, emotional responses, and vocalization
103
Q

Increase action potentials to DRG and VRG equals what?

A

*increase respiration

104
Q

Decrease action potentials to DRG and VRG equals what?

A

*decrease respiration

105
Q

Respiratory centers receive feedback from?

A
  • chemoreceptors (O2, CO2)
  • stretch receptors in lungs, joints, muscles
  • irritant receptors (things you breath in)
  • pain and emotion
106
Q

What do central chemoreceptors respond to?

A
  • changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid

* ensure stable CO2 level in the blood

107
Q

What does the pH of cerebrospinal fluid reflect?

A

*the CO2 level in the blood

108
Q

What do peripheral chemoreceptors respond to?

A

*the O2 and CO2 content and pH of blood

109
Q

Where are peripheral chemoreceptors found?

A

*in carotid and aortic bodies of the large arteries above the heart

110
Q

What can central chemoreceptors have?

A

*can have increase or decrease in H+ ion (responds to H+ concentration)

111
Q

If there is an increase in H+ (more acidic) what happens?

A

*turn on the three centers and breath faster

112
Q

What do peripheral chemo receptors do?

A

*increase or decrease in O2 levels

113
Q

If O2 levels are low what happens?

A

*breath faster

114
Q

What is the percentage drop we need before these centers kick in?

A

*60% drop

115
Q

What do stretch receptors respond to?

A

*inflation of the lungs

116
Q

Where are stretch receptors found?

A

*smooth muscles of bronchi and bronchioles, and in the visceral pleura

117
Q

What kind of input are stretch receptors?

A

*positive input (have input that will change respiration)

118
Q

What is the Hering- Breuer (inflation) reflex?

A
  • protective reflex that inhibits inspiratory neurons stopping inspiration
  • keeps lungs from overinflating
119
Q

What is the Hering-Breuer reflex triggered by?

A

*excessive inflation

120
Q

What do irritant receptors respond to?

A

*Respond to smoke, dust, pollen, chemical fumes, cold air, and excess mucus

121
Q

Where are irritant receptors found?

A

*nerve endings amid the epithelial cells of the airway

122
Q

What does irritant receptor trigger?

A

*Trigger protective reflexes such as bronchoconstriction, shallower breathing, breath-holding (apnea), or coughing

123
Q

What kind of input is irritant receptors?

A

*negative, turning down respiration (ex. foul smell, hold breath)

124
Q

What kind of input is pain?

A

*negative

125
Q

What kind of input is emotion?

A

*positive (cause respiration to increase) or negative (depends on anxiety)

126
Q

What is hyperventilation?

A

*anxiety-triggered state in which breathing is so rapid that it expels CO2 from the body faster than it is produced

127
Q

As blood CO2 levels drop what happens to pH?

A
  • the pH rises causing the cerebral arteries to constrict

* This reduces cerebral perfusion which may cause dizziness or fainting

128
Q

How can hyperventilation be brought under control?

A

*by having the person rebreathe the expired CO2 from a paper bag

129
Q

What is the total volume of air moved?

A

*pulmonary ventilation

130
Q

What is the volume of air at the exchange surface?

A

*alveolar ventilation

131
Q

What is called the dead space and what happens there?

A
  • conducting zone (150mL)

* no gas exchange

132
Q

What is the total ventilation we have in our lungs?

A

*500mL O2 X 12 breaths/min =6L/min

133
Q

The more we reach the alveolar space the better what happens?

A

*the better exchange

134
Q

What is alveolar ventilation?

A
  • Only air that enters the alveoli is available for gas exchange (not all inhaled air gets there)
  • About 150 mL fills the conducting division of the airway
  • Anatomic dead space
135
Q

What can the dead space be altered by?

A

*somewhat by sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation

136
Q

What happens in pulmonary diseases?

A
  • some alveoli may be unable to exchange gases because they lack blood flow or the respiratory membrane has been thickened by edema or fibrosis
137
Q

What is physiologic (total) dead space?

A

*Sum of anatomic dead space and any pathological alveolar dead space

138
Q

What is alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)?

A

*Air that ventilates alveoli (350 mL) X respiratory rate (12 bpm) = 4,200 mL/min.

139
Q

What is this measurement most directly relevant to?

A

*the body’s ability to get oxygen to the tissues and dispose of carbon dioxide

140
Q

What is residual volume?

A

*1,300 mL that cannot be exhaled with maximum effort

141
Q

If tissues drop in O2 what do you get?

A

*vasodilation

142
Q

If lungs drop in O2 what do you get?

A

*vasoconstriction

143
Q

Perfusion and ventilation has what types of muscles associated with them?

A

*2 smooth muscles

144
Q

What does the smooth muscle on the sphincter react to?

A

*O2 in alveoli

145
Q

If you have low O2 in alveoli what do you get?

A

*vasoconstriction

146
Q

If you have high O2 in the alveoli what do you get?

A

*vasodilation

147
Q

What does the smooth muscle on the alveoli react to?

A

*CO2 in alveoli (should be about 40mmHg)

148
Q

If there is high CO2 what will you get?

A

*bronchodilation

149
Q

What are some nonrespiratory reflexes?

A

*sneeze, cough, hiccup, yawn

150
Q

What is a sneeze for?

A

*to clear upper airway

151
Q

What is a cough for?

A
  • clear the lower airway

* raise pressure in lungs

152
Q

What is a hiccup?

A

*spasm of diaphragm

Anatomy 202 (4 decks)

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