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Anatomy 202 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the study of the endocrine system and the diagnosis and treatment of its disorders?

A

*endocrinology

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2
Q

What is glands, tissues, and cells that secrete hormones?

A

*endocrine system

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3
Q

What system is faster?

A

*nervous system but both are highly specific

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4
Q

What is the organs that are traditional sources of hormones?

A

*endocrine glands

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5
Q

What is a chemical messenger that are transported by the blood stream and stimulate physiological responses in cells of another tissue or organ, often a considerable distance away?

A

*hormone

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6
Q

What are the four principal mechanisms of communication between cells?

A
  • gap junction
  • neurotransmitters
  • paracrines
  • hormones
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7
Q

What are pores in cell membrane that allow signaling molecules, nutrients, and electrolytes to move from cell to cell?

A

*gap junctions

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8
Q

What is released from neurons to travel across synaptic cleft to second cells?

A

*neurotransmitters

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9
Q

What is secreted into tissue fluids to affect nearby cells (local neighbors?

A

*paracrines

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10
Q

What is a chemical messenger that travels in the blood stream to other tissues and organs?

A

*hormones

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11
Q

What is a biochemical (protein or steroid) secreted by a gland in response to changes in fluid chemistry neural, or hormonal control that alters the metabolism of a target cell?

A

*hormone

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12
Q

Secretion of hormones can be triggered by? (3)

A
  • blood chemistry
  • other glands and hormones
  • nervous system
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13
Q

How are hormones triggered by blood chemistry?

A

*Ca++ levels and PTH

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14
Q

If Ca levels go down what happens to PTH levels?

A

*they go up and that targets osteoclasts

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15
Q

How are hormones triggered by other glands and hormones?

A

*pituitary and hormones

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16
Q

Calcitriol=

A

*hormone D (vitamin D)

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17
Q

How are hormones triggered by the nervous system?

A

*epinephrine from the adrenal gand in response to flight or fight (sympathetic input)

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18
Q

What are some changes in the metabolism of the target cells? (4)

A
  • changes in membrane permeability (gates)
  • changes in protein synthesis (DNA)
  • changes in cell mitosis (growth)
  • changes in protein activation (enzymes)
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19
Q

What are the classes of hormones? (3)

A
  • amines
  • peptides
  • steroids (6)
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20
Q

What are amines?

A

*derived from single amino acids (norepinephrine)

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21
Q

What are 3 or more amino acids?

A

*peptides

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22
Q

What are most hormones?

A

*peptides

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23
Q

What are derived from cholesterol and are lipid soluble?

A

*steroids

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24
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

*water hating, hydrophobic

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25
Q

What classes of hormones are proteins, and hydrophilic?

A

*amines and peptides

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26
Q

What hormone cannot penetrate target cells?

A

*peptide hormones

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27
Q

What hormone binds to surface receptors and activates intracellular processes through second messengers?

A

*peptide hormones

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28
Q

What type of hormone penetrates plasma membrane and bind to internal receptors (usually in nucleus)?

A

*steroid hormone

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29
Q

What hormone influences expression of genes of target cells?

A

*steroid hormones

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30
Q

What hormone takes several hours to days to show effect due to lag for protein synthesis?

A

*steroid hormone

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31
Q

Are hormone concentrations in blood high or low?

A

*low

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32
Q

One hormone molecule can activate what?

A

*many enzyme molecules

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33
Q

A very small stimulus can produce what kind of effect?

A

*a very large effect

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34
Q

What hormone does the pineal gland secrete?

A

*melatonin (protein hormone)

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35
Q

What does melatonin target?

A

*most cells

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36
Q

What is the effect of melatonin?

A

*regulate day and night cycles (trigger daily rhythm)

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37
Q

How many hormones does the anterior pituitary gland produce?

A

*6

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38
Q

What hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland?

A
  • prolactin
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • growth hormone
  • thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • Adreno-cortico tropic hormone (ACTH)
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39
Q

How many hormones does the posterior pituitary release?

A

*2

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40
Q

What hormones are released by the posterior pituitary?

A
  • anti-diuretic hormone

* oxytocin

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41
Q

What is oxytocin for?

A
  • positive feedback

* child birth (contractions)

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42
Q

What hormones does the thyroid gland secrete?

A
  • thyroxine

* calcitonin

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43
Q

What hormones does the parathyroid gland secrete?

A

*parathyroid hormone (PTH)

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44
Q

What is PTH involved in?

A

*bone metabolism

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45
Q

What hormone does the thymus secrete?

A

*thymosine

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46
Q

What is in the adrenal gland?

A

*cortex and medulla

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47
Q

What does the adrenal cortex secrete?

A

*cortisone, aldosterone, and androgen (sex hormone, estrogen and testosterone)

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48
Q

What does the adrenal medulla secrete?

A

*epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline)

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49
Q

What is the adrenal medulla?

A

*ganglion

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50
Q

What does the testes secrete?

A

*testosterone

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51
Q

What does the ovaries secrete?

A

*estrogen and progesterone

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52
Q

What does the pancreas secrete?

A

*insulin and glucagon

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53
Q

What gland is an endocrine and exocrine organ?

A

*pancreas

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54
Q

What does the hypothalamus do?

A

*monitors blood composition

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55
Q

How does the hypothalamus monitor blood composition?

A

*monitor temperature, blood glucose, and osmolarity

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56
Q

What does ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) target?

A

*kidney

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57
Q

What is the response of ADH?

A

*retain water (decrease urine, water balance, thirst mechanism)

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58
Q

What is the trigger of ADH?

A

*increase or decrease in osmolarity

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59
Q

What does oxytocin target?

A

*smooth muscle of female uterus

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60
Q

What is the response of oxytocin?

A

*contraction of smooth muscle, labor pains (positive feedback mechanism)

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61
Q

What is the trigger of oxytocin?

A

*birth

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62
Q

The anterior pituitary releases its product into the what?

A

*hypothalamus via portal system

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63
Q

What is a portal system?

A

*from capillary to capillary

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64
Q

What are the tropic cells that the hypothalamus delivers its product to?

A
  • somatotrope
  • gonadotrope
  • thyrotrope
  • mammotrope
  • corticotrope
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65
Q

What does the somatotrope release?

A

*growth hormone

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66
Q

What does growth hormone target?

A

*all cells

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67
Q

What is the response of growth hormone?

A

*increase protein synthesis, increase lipolysis, spare glucose (keep brain happy)

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68
Q

What is the trigger of growth hormone?

A

*body growing (puberty)

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69
Q

What does gonadotrope secrete?

A

*LH and FSH

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70
Q

What does LH and FSH target?

A

*testes and ovaries

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71
Q

What is the effect of LH and FSH?

A
  • production of gametes in testes
  • effect in overies is maintenance of uterine cycles
  • testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone releases
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72
Q

What is the trigger for LH and FSH?

A

*negative feedback (trigger testosterone and estrogen)

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73
Q

What does thyrotrope secrete?

A

*TSH

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74
Q

What does TSH target?

A

*thyroid gland

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75
Q

What is the effect of TSH?

A

*release thyroxine (T3 and T4)

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76
Q

What is the trigger of TSH?

A

*levels of thyrotrope (low)

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77
Q

What does mammotrope secrete?

A

*prolactin (PRL)

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78
Q

What does prolactin target?

A

*mammary glands

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79
Q

What is the effect of prolactin?

A

*milk production

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80
Q

What does corticotrope secrete?

A

*ACTH

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81
Q

What does ACTH target?

A

*adrenal cortex

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82
Q

What does ACTH produce?

A

*cortisone

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83
Q

What is cortisone?

A
  • steroid (catabolic steroid, prevents chemical actions from happening)
  • death hormone
  • made of cholesterol
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84
Q

What is the trigger of ACTH?

A

*negative feedback

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85
Q

What is the thymus involved in?

A

*disease control

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86
Q

What does the thymus release?

A

*thymosine

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87
Q

What does thymosine target?

A

*T lymphocytes (white blood cells for immunity)

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88
Q

What is the effect of thymosine?

A

*mature of lymphocyte (makes it reproduce rapidly)

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89
Q

What is the trigger of thymosine?

A

*disease

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90
Q

What does thyroid release?

A

*T3 and T4 (thyroxine)

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91
Q

What does T3 and T4 target?

A

*all cells

92
Q

What is the effect of T3 and T4?

A
  • increase metabolism and increase growth and development

* increase enzyme synthesis

93
Q

What is the trigger for the parathyroid?

A

*increase and decrease Ca levels

94
Q

What does the parathyroid release?

A

*PTH

95
Q

What does PTH target?

A

*osteoclasts

96
Q

What is the effect of PTH?

A
  • liquefy bone matrix

* increase Ca levels

97
Q

What is in the matrix?

A

*Ca and collagen

98
Q

Adrenal cortex is what?

A

*glandular

99
Q

What is the trigger for the adrenal cortex?

A

*ACTH

100
Q

What does the adrenal cortex release?

A

*releases corticosteriods

101
Q

What does the adrenal cortex target?

A

*most cells

102
Q

What is the effect of the adrenal cortex?

A

*increase in glycogenolysis, increase in lipolysis, and decrease in protein synthesis

103
Q

What is an increase in lipolysis?

A

*free up energy sources, used for healing

104
Q

What is the medulla?

A

*gangia and glandular

105
Q

What is the trigger for the medulla?

A

*flight or fight (increase sympathetic stimulation)

106
Q

What does the medulla release?

A

*epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (from sympathetic)

107
Q

What is the target for the medulla?

A

*having the sympathetic nervous system turn on hormone

108
Q

What are the two functions of the pancreas?

A

*endocrine and exocrine

109
Q

What is the trigger for the endocrine function of the pancreas?

A

*blood glucose levels (increase or decrease)

110
Q

What does the endocrine function release?

A

*alpha and beta cells

111
Q

What do alpha cells release?

A

*glucagon

112
Q

What do beta cells release?

A
  • insulin (released when glucose levels are high, facilitates glucose diffusion into cells)
  • helps store glucose (glycogenesis)
113
Q

What does glucagon free?

A

*stored glucose (released when glucose levels are low)

114
Q

What does the exocrine function secrete?

A

*pancreatic juice (digestive)

115
Q

What is released when glucose levels are low?

A

*stored glucose

116
Q

What is released when glucose levels are high?

A

*insulin

117
Q

What is the receptor location for a protein?

A

*membrane

118
Q

What is the receptor location for a steroid?

A

*cytosol or nucleus

119
Q

What does the gonads release?

A

*LH and FSH

120
Q

What does LH and FSH target?

A

*ovary and testes

121
Q

What is the effect for FSH?

A

*produce gamete and ovum

122
Q

What does LH cause the release of?

A

*egg (ovulation)

123
Q

What does FSH increase?

A

*sperm production

124
Q

What does LH increase?

A

*testosterone production

125
Q

What is the synthesis and storage of proteins?

A

*made in advance, stored in vesicles

126
Q

What is the synthesis and storage of steroids?

A

*made on demand

127
Q

What is the release mechanism for proteins?

A

*exocytosis

128
Q

What is the release mechanism for steroids?

A

*simple diffusion

129
Q

What is the transport mechanism for proteins?

A

*dissolved in plasma

130
Q

What is the transport mechanism for steroids?

A

*bound to a protein carrier

131
Q

What is the half life for proteins?

A

*<2 min

132
Q

What is the half life for steroids?

A

*hours

133
Q

Why do steroids take hours?

A

*have chaperonin protecting the protein

134
Q

What is the response to binding for proteins?

A

*2nd messenger, AC and cAMP

135
Q

What is the response to binding for steroids?

A

*direct gene activation

136
Q

What is the response to target for proteins?

A

*modify proteins (gates, pumps)

137
Q

What is the response to target for steroids?

A

*protein syn, or mitosis

138
Q

What is an example of a protein?

A

*insulin NE, Epi

139
Q

What is an example of a steroid?

A

*testosterone, estrogen

140
Q

What is another name for red blood cell?

A

*erythrocytes

141
Q

What kind of tissue is blood?

A

*special connective tissue

142
Q

What are all connective tissues made of?

A

*matrix and ground substance

143
Q

What is the matrix?

A

*ground substance and proteins

144
Q

What is the ground substance?

A
  • plasma

* > 100 dissolved proteins

145
Q

What is the function of blood?

A
  • distribution
  • regulatory
  • protection
146
Q

What are some things blood distributes?

A

*gases, hormones, stem cell transport

147
Q

What are some ways blood regulates?

A

*temperature, pH, and fluid volume

148
Q

What are some ways blood protects you?

A

*leukocytes (immunity), antibodies, prevention of blood loss (platelets)

149
Q

What is the plasma composition?

A
  • proteins
  • nutrients
  • blood gasses
  • electrolytes
  • wastes
150
Q

What are the 4 proteins in the plasma?

A

*albumin, globulins, fibrinogen, and enzyme hormones

151
Q

What protein in the plasma is most abundant but smallest?

A

*albumin

152
Q

What proteins in the plasma is for antibodies?

A

*globulins

153
Q

What protein in the plasma is for the clotting progress?

A

*fibrinogen

154
Q

What is the big electrolytes?

A

*Na

155
Q

What is the total molarity of those dissolved particles that cannot pass through the blood vessel wall?

A

*osmolarity of blood

156
Q

If osmolarity is too high what happens?

A

*blood absorbs too much water, increasing the blood pressure (restrict sodium intake)

157
Q

If osmolarity is too low what happens?

A

*too much water stays in tissue, blood pressure drops, and edema (swelling) occurs

158
Q

How is optimum osmolarity achieved?

A

*by the body’s regulation of sodium ions, proteins *, and red blood cells

159
Q

What is one of the major proteins that helps achieve optiumum osmolarity?

A

*albumin

160
Q

What is transcytosis?

A

*endocytosis on one side, exocytosis on the other

161
Q

all formed elements started from what?

A

*stem cell called hemocytoblast

162
Q

All stem cells are found where?

A

*in bone marrow

163
Q

Are adult erythrocytes living?

A

*no, no nucleus or DNA

164
Q

Features of RBC?

A
  • biconcave disc shape
  • no organelles
  • no nucleus (no repair, or mitosis)
  • non stop ATP through glycolysis
  • can carry O2 but cannot use the O2 is carries (no mitochondria)
165
Q

What do RBC lacks?

A
  • mitochondria

* nucleus and DNA

166
Q

What is hemoglobin?

A
  • quaternary structure
  • 4 polypeptide chains
  • 4 heme groups
  • Fe at the center
167
Q

Where is O2 carried?

A

*in the heme group

168
Q

What is the erythrocyte function?

A
  • carry hemoglobin and therefore functions to bind and release O2 and CO2
  • release nitric oxide (NO)
169
Q

What is a potent vasodilator that can dramatically increase blood flow?

A

*NO (nitric oxide)

170
Q

What is hemopoiesis?

A

*development of blood cells and white blood cells

171
Q

What is hypoxemia?

A

*low O2 in blood

172
Q

Where do worn out erythrocytes get caught?

A

*in liver and spleen

173
Q

What are the types of leukocytes?

A
  • granulocytes

* agranulocytes

174
Q

What are the granulocytes?

A
  • neutrophil
  • eosinophil
  • basophil
175
Q

What granulocyte is multilobed and most abundant?

A

*neutrophil

176
Q

What granulocyte is the first to arrive at a wound site and for bacterial infections?

A

*neutrophil

177
Q

What granulocyte respond to allergies and parasitic worm infections?

A

*eosinophil

178
Q

What granulocyte is involved in inflammation and releases histamine and heparin?

A

*basophil

179
Q

What are the agranulocytes?

A
  • monocytes

* lymphocyte

180
Q

What agranulocyte will become a phagocytes?

A

*monocyte

181
Q

What agranulocyte is involved in viral infections and has T and B cells?

A

*lymphocytes

182
Q

What are T lymphocytes stored?

A

*thymus

183
Q

Where are B lymphocytes stored?

A

*blood born

184
Q

What is leukopoeisis?

A

*formation of WBC

185
Q

How are leukocytes developed?

A
  • Begins with activation by chemicals known as colony stimulating factors……commonly called “cytokines”
  • Cytokines are hormones (chemicals) , released by other leukocytes and inflammation, that stimulate stem cells and leukocytes
186
Q

Cytokines are chemicals that active what?

A

*leukocytes

187
Q

How do cytokines active leukocytes?

A
  • Active stem cell -> adult
  • Cause mitosis in existing or adult WBC
  • Activated cells release cytokines
188
Q

What is a movement of cells along a chemical gradient?

A

*chemotaxis

189
Q

What is the passage of leukocytes through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation?

A

*diapedesis

190
Q

What makes the space get bigger?

A

*histamine

191
Q

What is the stoppage of blood flow?

A

*hemostasis

192
Q

What are the platelets functions?

A
  • release vasoconstrictor (serotonin, causes smooth muscle to contract)
    • releases cytokines
    • releases pro-coagulents
    • attract monocytes
    • encourage growth hormone release
193
Q

What are the 3 steps in hemostasis?

A
  1. vasospasm- after injury platelets release serotonin, serotonin causes smooth muscle contraction (narrow size, make blood flow slow down)
    1. platelet plug formation- platelets become sticky (chemicals causes this)
    2. blood clotting (coagulation)
      * have protein fibrinogen in blood (soluble) ->(done by thrombin, activated by trauma) get fibrin (insoluble, protein strands)
194
Q

A victim has type A blood (whole blood=plasma and formed elements). What type of erythrocytes can this person be given?

A

*type A and type O

195
Q

what is a protein type structure?

A

*antigen

196
Q

What is a protein built by B cells?

A

*antibodies

197
Q

What is a blood clot?

A

*coagulation

198
Q

What is an agglutination?

A

*antibody -> attaches to antigen

199
Q

What does Flow=

A

*Blood Pressure (MAP-mean arterial pressure) /Resistance (TPR- total peripheral resistance)

200
Q

What is the left side of the heart called?

A

*systemic circuit

201
Q

What is the right side of the heart called?

A

*pulmonary circuit

202
Q

What side of the heart has Lesser oxygenated blood arrives from inferior and superior venae cavae?

A

*right side

203
Q

What side of the heart has Fully oxygenated blood arrives from lungs via pulmonary veins?

A

*left side

204
Q

What side of the heart has blood sent to all organs of the body via aorta?

A

*left side

205
Q

What receives the entire cardiac output?

A

*lungs

206
Q

How is the heart adjusted?

A
  • 3 nervous systems

* endocrine system

207
Q

What are the 3 nervous systems that adjust the heart?

A
  • sympathetic
  • parasympathetic
  • sensory (control autonomic outputs)
208
Q

What are the three layers of the heart?

A
  • epicardium
  • myocardium
  • endocardium
209
Q

What is the sac called around the heart?

A

*pericardium sac

210
Q

What is the first layer of pericardium?

A

*epicardium or visceral pericardium

211
Q

What protects the heart and adds lubricant, and keeps it from over expanding?

A

*parietal pericardium

212
Q

What Allows heart to beat without friction, provides room to expand, yet resists excessive expansion?

A

*pericardium

213
Q

What has a Serous lining of sac turns inward at base of heart to cover the heart surface?

A

*visceral pericardium

214
Q

What has a Superficial fibrous layer of connective tissue

and is Deep, thin serous layer?

A

*parietal pericardium

215
Q

What is the serous membrane made out of?

A

*collagen

216
Q

What has all of these things Serous membrane covering heart, Adipose in thick layer in some places, Coronary blood vessels travel through this layer?

A

*epicardium

217
Q

What has all these things Smooth inner lining of heart and blood vessels and Covers the valve surfaces and is continuous with endothelium of blood vessels?

A

*endocardium

218
Q

What is the middle layer that has cardiac myocytes?

A

*myocardium

219
Q

What is extended through every single tube?

A

*endocardium

220
Q

What has these thingsLayer of cardiac muscle proportional to work load and Muscle spirals around heart which produces wringing motion?

A

*myocardium

221
Q

What is the fibrous skeleton of the heart?

A

*framework of collagenous and elastic fibers

222
Q

What is any vessel that is leaving the heart?

A

*artery

223
Q

What is any vessel leading to the heart?

A

*vein

224
Q

What does the chordae tendinae prevent?

A

*the muscles from opening in the wrong direction

225
Q

What side has the thicker myocardium and why?

A

*left for higher pressure

Anatomy 202 (4 decks)

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