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A &P 2 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

6 functions of Urinary system

A
  • Excretes (nitrogenous) waste products
    (Urea, uric acid, creatine)

-Regulates composition of blood

-Produces renin

-Produces erythropoietin

-Activates vitamin D

-Gluconeogenesis- converts noncarbohydrate into glucose

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2
Q

what is the layer for the kidney

A

retroperitoneal

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3
Q

3 layers of kidney supportive tissue

A
  1. renal fascia
  2. adipose capsule
  3. renal capsule
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4
Q

main 3 regions of the kidneys

A

Renal cortex- outermost, dense CT, light red/brown

Renal medulla- middle, fat tissue, Dark red/ brown (renal pyramids)

Renal pelvis- inner region, hallow cavity that contains urine

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5
Q

are the structural and functional units of the kidneys

A

nephrons

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6
Q

how many nephrons per kidney

A

over 1 million

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7
Q
  • filtration takes place here
  • consists of Bowmans’s capsule
A

renal corpuscle

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8
Q

-filtrate is processes to form urine
-consists of the PCT, Loop of Henle and the DCT

A

Renal tubules

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9
Q

85% of all nephrons
-most in the nephron located in cortex
-have short loops of henle

A

Cortical nephrons

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10
Q

15% of all nephrons

Most of nephron located near the border between the cortex and medulla

Have long loops of Henle

A

juxtamedullary nephrons

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11
Q

what are the 2 capillary beds and what do they exchange with

A
  1. Glomerulus (1st capillary bed) - exchanged with Bowman’s capsule (filtration)
  2. Peritubular capillaries (2nd capillary bed) - exchange with the renal tubules (reabsorption and secretion)
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12
Q

are peritubular capillaries that exchange with the long loops of Henle

A

vasa recta

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13
Q

path of blood flow through renal blood vessels

A
  1. Afferent arteriole ->
  2. glomerulus (capillaries)->
  3. efferent arteriole ->
  4. peritubular capillaries or vasa recta
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14
Q

Flow of filtrate through the kidneys

A

Filtrate forms in Bowman’s capsule_>PCT-> Descending limb of loop of Henle-> ascending limb of loop of Henle-> DCT-> Collecting ducts

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15
Q

fluid that fills the Bowman’s capsule and flows through the renal tubules

A

filtrate

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16
Q

is plasma without the large sized proteins

A

filtrate

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17
Q

fluid in the renal pelvis

A

urine

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18
Q

blood flow through kidneys

A

1,200 ml/min

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19
Q

GFR- glomerular filtration rate (rate of filtrate formation

A

120 ml/min

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20
Q

rate of urine formation

A

1.2 ml/min

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21
Q

three steps in urine formation

A
  1. Glomerular filtration —> makes filtrate
  2. Tubular reabsorption–>adjusts the chemical composition of the filtrate
  3. Tubular secretion–> adjusts the chemical composition of the filtrate
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22
Q

Passive, nonselective process

Hydrostatic pressures force fluid across filtration membrane

Fluids move out of the glomerulus and into the Bowman’s capsule

A

Glomerular filtration

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23
Q

Very thin- 0.1 micrometers

Very permeable- consists of

Fenestrated capillaries

Basal lamina

Podocytes (inner wall of the Bowman’s capsule)

A

the filtration membrane

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24
Q

If NFP is positive

A

filtration occurs

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25
Q

if NFP is negative

A

reabsorption occurs

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26
Q

how does the myogenic mechanism regulate glomerular filtration

A

automatic adjustment of the afferent arteriole diameter

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27
Q

how does the macula densa cells provide regulation of glomerular filtration

A

chemoreceptors in ascending limb

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28
Q

how does juxtaglomerular cells regulate glomerular filtration

A

secrete renin (enzyme)

If pressures are too low, juxtaglomerular cells correct the problem by making renin

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29
Q

Renin is secreted by juxtaglomerular cells due to low pressure in glomerulus

A

angiotensinogen–(renin)–> angiotensin 1–(ACE)–> angiotensin 2

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30
Q

Reabsorption= return to blood

99% of water and many solutes in the filtrate return to the blood

The chemical composition of the filtrate is adjusted

A

tubular reabsorption

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31
Q

what part renal tubule- selective reabsorption

A

PCT

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32
Q

in what part of renal tubule does tubular reabsorption generates osmotic gradients in medulla

A

Long loops of Henle

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33
Q

in what part of renal tubule does tubular reabsorption is mainly regulated by hormones

A

DCT and Collecting Duct

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34
Q

what is the PCT Tubular Reabsorption for this mechanism:
Primary active transport-> sodium potassium pump (Na+K+ pump)

A

Na+ (only some of the Na+ gets reabsorbed)

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35
Q

what is the PCT Tubular Reabsorption for this mechanism:
Secondary Active transport

A

Glucose, amino acids, vitamins

(100% reabsorbed)

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36
Q

what is the PCT Tubular Reabsorption for this mechanism:
Osmosis- passive, obligatory water reabsorption

A

Water

(some is reabsorbed)

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37
Q

what is the PCT Tubular Reabsorption for this mechanism:
Passive, paracellular (between cells)

A

Some ions

(some reabsorbed)

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38
Q

what is the PCT Tubular Reabsorption for this mechanism:
Passive

A

Urea, uric acid, lipids (lipid- soluble substances)

(some reabsorbed)

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39
Q

what is the PCT Tubular Reabsorption for this mechanism:
Tubule cells use endocytosis and break down proteins into amino acids

A

proteins (some reabsorbed)

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40
Q

what is never reabsorbed in PCT tubular reabsorption

A

Creatinine

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41
Q

in the plasma is a measure of the glomerular filtration rate and therefore kidney function.

A

creatinine concentration

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42
Q

solute particles/ 1 liter of water (in medulla)

A

osmolarity

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43
Q

isotonic solution

A

300 milliosmolar

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44
Q

very hypertonic

A

1200 milliosmolar

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45
Q

what is reabsorbed in descending limb

A

water

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46
Q

what is reabsorbed in ascending limb

A

solutes

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47
Q

Permeable to water

Impermeable to solutes

A

Descending limb

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48
Q

Permeable to solutes

Impermeable to water

A

ascending limb

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49
Q

what hormone does water need in DCT and Collecting Ducts Tubular Reabsorption

A

Osmosis by facultative water reabsorption needs ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

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50
Q

what hormone does Na+ need in DCT and Collecting Ducts Tubular Reabsorption

A

Active transport of Na+ needs aldosterone

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51
Q

what hormone does urea need in DCT and Collecting Ducts Tubular Reabsorption

A

none- Passive, urea leaks out in deep parts of medulla

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52
Q

Substances in the blood in the peritubular capillaries enter the filtrate in the renal tubules and collecting ducts

Helps to get rid of waste products

Helps maintain blood pH

A

tubular secretion

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53
Q

what is the function of tubular secretion of certain drugs (penicillin)

A

Rids body of drugs that are poorly filtered

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54
Q

what is the function of tubular secretion of urea and uric acid

A

Rids the body of some urea, uric acid, that were partially reabsorbed

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55
Q

what is the function of tubular secretion of H+ or bicarbonate ions

A

Maintains the pH of the blood (7.4)

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56
Q

what is the function of tubular secretion of K+ ions

A

Regulates the K+ ions in body (removes excess K+ ions from body)

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57
Q

is a measure of a solution’s ability to cause osmosis (water movements)

A

Osmolarity

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58
Q

Body fluids are maintained at ___ mOsm

A

300

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59
Q

300 miliosmolar

A

istonic

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60
Q

1000 miliosmolar

A

hypertonic

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61
Q

formation of dilute urine

A

ADH release is inhibited

No facultative water reabsorption

Large volume of dilute urine excreted

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62
Q

Diuretic- substances that increase urine output

A

Caffeine

Alcohol

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63
Q

Formation of Concentrated Urine needs:

A

Medullary osmotic gradient (300->1200 mOsm)

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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64
Q

Osmotic gradients in the medulla are mainly due to the

A

countercurrent mechanism

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65
Q

Countercurrent Mechanism consists of

A
  1. Countercurrent multiplier- long loop of Henle which generate the gradient
  2. Countercurrent exchanger- vasa recta which maintain the gradient
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66
Q

Formation of Concentrated Urine:

A

ADH is released

Facultative water reabsorption occurs

Small volume of concentrated urine excreted

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67
Q

name the hormone and site of secretion for every effect:
Causes vasoconstriction which increases blood pressure

A

Hormone: renin->angiotensin
Site of secretion: Juxtaglomerular cells

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68
Q

name the hormone and site of secretion for every effect:
Increase in Na+ reabsorption and increases water reabsorption = increase in blood volume= increases blood pressure

A

Hormone: aldosterone (triggered by angiotensin II)
Site of secretion: adrenal cortex

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69
Q

Increase in Na+ reabsorption and increases water reabsorption =
Increases facultative water reabsorption- increases blood volume- increases blood pressure= small volume of concentrated urine made

A

Hormone: ADH (triggered by dehydration)
Site of secretion:
hypothalamus/ posterior pituitary gland

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70
Q

normal urine components

A

95 % water (solvent)

Urea (solute)

Most abundant solute in urine

Uric acid (solute)

Creatinine (solute)

Ions: Na+, K+. Phosphate, sulfate, Ca+, Mg+2, bicarbonate (solutes)

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71
Q

what abnormal urine component can have this possible cause: diabetes mellitus

A

glucose

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72
Q

what abnormal urine component can have this possible cause: renal disease, hypertension

A

proteins

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73
Q

what abnormal urine component can have this possible cause: bleeding (trauma), tumor, kidney stones

A

RBC

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74
Q

what abnormal urine component can have this possible cause: infection

A

WBC

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75
Q

what abnormal urine component can have this possible cause: liver disease

A

bilirubin

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76
Q

what abnormal urine component can have this possible cause: diabetes mellitus, extreme dieting, starvation

A

Ketone bodies- result of fatty acid metabolism

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77
Q

Membrane Transport Process:

A

Passive processes do not need ATP

Active processes need ATP

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78
Q

move substances from High- > low concentration

A

passive processes

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79
Q

small nonpolar molecules can diffuse across the plasma membrane

A

simple diffusion

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80
Q

needs either a protein carrier or protein channel

A

facilitated diffusion

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81
Q

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, needs aquaporins (water channels)

A

osmosis

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82
Q

usually move substances from low -> high concentration

A

active processes

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83
Q

directly uses ATP to move particles from low to high concentration

Examples: Na+K+ pump

A

primary active transport

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84
Q

links the movement of one article to a second particle

A

secondary active transport

85
Q

uses vesicles to move substances

A

vesicular transport

86
Q

uses membrane sacs (vesicles) to move substances across the membrane

A

vesicular transport

87
Q

substances enter cell using vesicles

A

endocytosis

88
Q

substances exit cell using vesicles

A

exocytosis

89
Q

water and dissolved solutes in the body

A

body fluids

90
Q

The body regulates the volume and composition of the body fluids to maintain

A

homeostasis

91
Q

fluid inside cells, about 2/3 total body fluid

A

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

92
Q

fluid outside cells, about 1/3 total body fluids

A

Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

93
Q

2 ECF compartments

A

Plasma and Interstitial fluid (IF)

94
Q

fluid component of blood

A

plasma

95
Q

fluid in spaces between cells, includes lymph, CSF, serous fluid, synovial fluid, digestive tract secretions

A

interstitial fluid (IF)

96
Q

Components of body fluids (60 %of body)

A

water, solutes, electrolytes, nonelectrolytes

97
Q

components that dissociate, and release charged particles in solutions

Examples: salts, acids +bases, most proteins

A

electrolytes

98
Q

compounds that do not dissociate in solution

Examples: glucose, lipids, urea, and creatinine

A

nonelectrolytes

99
Q

Because ___ dissociate and release more particles in solution, they have a greater effect on fluid movements than ___

A

electrolytes, nonelectrolytes

100
Q

Plasma: High
IF: High
ICF: low

A

Na+

101
Q

Plasma: low
IF: low
ICF: high

A

K+

102
Q

Plasma: medium
IF: low
ICF: high

A

Protein

103
Q

continuous intermixing of body fluids in different compartments

A

fluid movements

104
Q

Regulation of Water Balance

A

About 2.5 liters of water gained per day

About 2.5 liters of water lost per day

105
Q

gain most water into body by

A

drinking

106
Q

loose most water through

A

urinary system

107
Q

most body fluids are

A

isotonic

108
Q

Less then 300 mOsmolar

higher than 300 mOsmolar

A

hypotonic
hypertonic

109
Q

if water loss> water gain

A

dehydration occurs (osmolarity increases)

110
Q

If water gain>water loss

A

excess water in body (osmolarity decreases)

111
Q

The Thirst center is located in the ___ which contains osmoreceptors (sensors that detect osmolarity)

A

hypothalamus

112
Q

Thirst center responses that correct for dehydration:

A
  1. induces thirst
  2. Releases ADH- higher facultative water reabsorption -
    Produce small volume of concentrated urine
113
Q

Thirst center responses that correct for excess of water:

A
  1. inhibits thirst- stop drinking
  2. inhibits ADH release - no facultative water reabsorption- no water goes back into the blood-
    Kidneys produce a large volume of dilute urine
114
Q

Na+ is regulated by

A

tubular reabsorption

115
Q

(too much Na+) High BP, high blood volume triggers

A

ANP (produced by overstretched artia) release -> decreases Na+ reabsorption.
Results in lower BP and blood volume

116
Q

(too little Na+) Low BP, low blood volume triggers

A

Aldosterone release -> increases Na+
reabsorption.
Results in higher BP and blood volume

117
Q

K+ is regulated by

A

tubular secretion

118
Q

High blood K+ triggers an increase in

A

secretion of K+ into urine

Results in lowering blood K+

119
Q

Low blood K+ inhibits secretion

A

of K+ into urine

Resulting in conserving K+ in blood

120
Q

Without action potentials

A

nervous system and muscles will suffer

121
Q

substances leave blood and enters filtrate/urine

A

secretion

122
Q

a measure of the H+ ion concentration in solution

A

pH

123
Q

more acid means

A

more H+

124
Q

more basic means

A

less H+

125
Q

what is the pH of Arterial plasma

A

7.4

126
Q

what is the pH of Venous plasma and IF

A

7.35

127
Q

what is the pH of ICF

A

7.0

128
Q

PH>7.45

Plasma is too basic= too few H+ ion

A

Alkalosis

129
Q

PH<7.35

Plasma is too acidic (too many H+ ions)

For body to function

A

Physiological Acidosis

130
Q

3 mechanisms to regulate acid- base balance of the blood

A
  1. buffers
  2. respiratory compensation- breathing changes to correct pH imbalance
  3. renal compensation- kidneys correct for pH imbalance
131
Q

weak acids or weak bases which minimize changes in pH

A

buffers

132
Q

substances that release H+ ions in solution

A

acids

133
Q

substances that remove H+ ions from solution

A

bases

134
Q

When removing a H+ from a weak acid you get a

A

weak base

135
Q

When adding a H+ from a weak base you get a

A

weak acid

136
Q

What is the buffer, weak acid, and weak base for ECF- plasma and IF

A

Buffer: Carbonic acid- bicarbonate buffer
Acid: Carbonic acid: H2CO3
Base: Bicarbonate: HCO3-1

137
Q

What is the buffer, weak acid, and weak base for Urine and ICF

A

Buffer: Phosphate buffer
Acid: Dihydrogen Phosphate H2PO4-1
Base: Monohydrogen phosphate: HPO4-2

138
Q

What is the buffer, weak acid, and weak base for ICF

A

Buffer: Protein buffer
Acid: Acidic amino acids: aspartic acid and glutamic acid
Base: Basic amino acids: lysine, arginine and histidine

139
Q

Imbalance: (too many H+) If pH is too low,

A

Corrected by: the weak base removes H+ from solution-> results in raising the pH

140
Q

Imbalance: (too little H+) If pH is too high,

A

Corrected by: the weak acid releases H+ into solution-> results in lowering the pH

141
Q

corrects blood pH imbalances by changing breathing

A

Respiratory Compensation-

142
Q

If blood pH <7.35,(physiological acidosis) respiratory compensation by

A

hyperventilation -> results in raising pH of blood

143
Q

If blood pH >7.45 (alkalosis), respiratory compensation by

A

slow, shallow breathing -> results in lowering the pH of blood

144
Q

kidneys correct for pH imbalances long- term

A

Renal compensation

145
Q

If imbalance is acidosis, then the kidneys compensate by

A

reabsorbing more bicarbonate-> results in raising blood pH

146
Q

If imbalance is alkalosis, then the kidneys compensate by

A

reabsorbing more H+ ions-> results in lowering the pH of blood

147
Q

8 functions of the respiratory system

A

Brings in O2

Removes CO2

Regulates blood pH

Smell receptors

Filters inspired air

Produces sounds

Removes excess water and heat

Respiratory pump

148
Q

What are the functional divisions of the respiratory system

A
  1. conducting zone structures (no gas exchange)
  2. Respiratory cone structures (gas exchange occurs
149
Q

what functional division have: nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles

A

Conducting zone structures

150
Q

what functional division has: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli, alveolar sacs

A

respiratory zone structures

151
Q

Structure of the respiratory membrane

A
  1. Alveolar walls made of: simple squamous epithelial

Type I cells- most abundant cell in alveolar wall, makes ACE

Type II cells- makes surfactant (chemical that reduces surface tension)

  1. Basement membrane
  2. Capillary walls- tunica interna, simple squamous epithelial (endothelial cells)
152
Q

Air-blood barrier

Very thin (0.5-1 micrometers)

Has a large surface area- approximately750 square feet

A

the respiratory membrane

153
Q

to supply body with O2 and dispose of CO2

A

respiration

154
Q

4 processes of respiration

A

Pulmonary ventilation- breathing (inhalation, exhalation)

External respiration- exchange of O2 and CO2 between air in alveoli and blood

Transport of respiratory gases O2 and CO2 (cardiovascular system)

Internal respiration- exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues

155
Q

Inhalation or inspiration- intake of air

Exhalation or expiration- outflow of air

A

pulmonary ventilation- breathing

156
Q

Pressure of the air surrounding the body

A

Atmospheric pressure: 760 mm Hg

157
Q

Pressure of the air inside the lungs or alveoli

A

Alveolar pressure: changes with breathing

158
Q

Pressure in the pleural cavities

A

Intrapleural pressure: about 4 mm Hg below alveolar pressure

159
Q

the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume

A

Boyle’s Law

160
Q

Boyle’s law equation

A

P1V1=P2V2

161
Q

When atmospheric pressure > alveolar pressure

A

Air moves into lungs (inhalation

162
Q

When alveolar pressure > atmospheric pressure:

A

air leaves lungs (exhalation)

163
Q

occurs during resting conditions

A

quiet breathing

164
Q

Quiet inhalation is an active process:

A

The diaphragm and external intercostals contract

165
Q

Quiet exhalation is a passive process:

A

The diaphragm and external intercostals relax

166
Q

occurs during exertion or controlled breathing

A

forced breathing

167
Q

Forced inhalation is an active process:

These muscles contract:

A
  1. diaphragm
  2. external intercostals
  3. scalenes
  4. sternocleidomastoid
  5. pectoralis minor
168
Q

Forced exhalation is both passive and active

These muscles relax:
These muscles contract:

A

Relax: diaphragm and external intercostals
Contract: internal intercostals and abdominal muscles

169
Q

Factors affecting pulmonary ventilation

A
  1. Alveolar surface tension (low)

Surfactant decreases surface tension

  1. Lung compliance (high)
  2. Airway resistance (low)
170
Q

ability of lungs to be stretched

A

lung compliance

171
Q

opposition to air flow- Blockage by phlegm- bronchi/bronchioles constrict (asthma)

A

airway resistance

172
Q

exchange of O2 and CO2 between air in lungs and blood

A

external respiration

173
Q

external respiration occurs across the

A

respirator membrane

174
Q

pressure exerted by each gas o a mixture of gases

A

partial pressure

175
Q

Factors affecting the rate of external respirating:

A

Structure of the respiratory membrane

Partial pressure gradients for O2 and CO2

Gas solubilities for O2 and CO2

176
Q

partial pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the percentage of that gas in the mixture

A

Dalton’s law of partial pressures

177
Q

Which gas in the atmosphere has the highest partial pressure?

A

Nitrogen

178
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli

A

105 mm Hg

179
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in alveoli

A

40 mm Hg

180
Q

Each gas in a mixture of gases moves down its own

A

partial pressure gradient

181
Q

what is the Po2 and Pco2 in the Alveoli or Arterial blood (o2 rich)

A

Po2: 105 mm Hg or 100 mm Hg
Pco2: 40 mm Hg

182
Q

what is the Po2 and Pco2 in Tissues, venous blood or pulmonary capillaries (o2 poor)

A

Po2: 40 mm Hg
Pco2: 45 mm Hg

183
Q

O2 diffuses out of alveoli into blood: 105-> 40 mm Hg

Co2 diffuses out of blood into alveoli: 45-> 40 mm Hg

A

External Respiration

184
Q

when a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in proportion to its partial pressure and solubility

A

Henrey’s law

185
Q

Gas solubilities

A

N2- insoluble in water
O2- slightly soluble
CO2- very soluble

186
Q

of CO2 and O2 are exchanged across the respiratory membrane due to partial pressure gradients and solubilities.

A

equal amounts

187
Q

exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues

A

internal respiration

188
Q

O2 diffuses out of blood into tissues: 100-> 40 mm Hg

CO2 diffuses out of tissues into blood: 45-> 40 mm Hg

A

internal respiration

189
Q

Transport of O2 by the blood

A

98.5 % of O2 attached to hemoglobin in RBCs

1.5 % of O2dissolved in plasma

190
Q

Hemoglobin is 100% saturated when

A

all 4 binding sites have O2 (Oxyhemoglobin)

191
Q

Hemoglobin is partially saturated when

A

1,2, or3 O2 bound to it

192
Q

Hemoglobin is 0% saturated when

A

no O2 bound to it (deoxyhemoglobin)

193
Q

Binding of O2 to hemoglobin is

A

reversible and cooperative

194
Q

arterial blood is ___saturated

A

100%

195
Q

Venous blood is ___ saturated during rest

A

75%

196
Q

large oxygen reserve exists in

A

blood

197
Q

5 Factors affecting rate of O2 binding to hemoglobin:

A

increase in Po2 = increase in binding of O2 to hemoglobin

increase in H+ ion concentration (Bohr Effect)

increase in Pco2- release of O2 from hemoglobin

increase in Temperature - release O2

increase in BPG- release of O2 from hemoglobin

198
Q

Transport of CO2 by the blood

A

7% CO2 dissolved in plasma

23% CO2 bound to amino acids of hemoglobin (carbaminohemoglobin)

70 % CO2 transported as bicarbonate ion in plasma

199
Q

deoxyhemoglobin has a greater affinity for CO2

A

Haldane effect

200
Q

when the pH decreases, more oxygen will be unloaded from
hemoglobin

A

Bohr effect

201
Q

Respiratory Centers:

A

Medullary rhythmicity area

Pons has:
- Pneumotaxic area
- Apneustic area

202
Q

Pulmonary ventilation also affected by:

A

Higher brain centers (conscious mind)

Chemicals
- increase in Pco2=(hyperventilation)
- large drops in Po2=(hyperventilation)
- drop in Arterial pH= hyperventilation

Hering-Breuer reflex

203
Q

has the greatest effect on breathing

A

Pco2

204
Q

when lungs are overstretched, lungs receive signal from the medulla to end inspiration

A

Hering- Breuer reflex

205
Q

what respiratory center sets the normal rate and rhythm of breathing

A

medullary rhythmicity (in medulla oblongata)

206
Q

what respiratory center - moderate breathing

A

the areas in the Pons

207
Q

what area of the pons shortens the inhalation period- faster breathing

A

pneumotaxic area

208
Q

what area of the pons lengthens the inhalation period- slow and deep inhalation period

A

Apneustic area

A &P 2 (4 decks)

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