Exam 3 Flashcards
Developmental psychology
Studies physical, cognitive, and social development throughout life.
Cross-sectional studies
Comparing people of different ages.
Longitudinal studies
Following one group of people or one person over time.
People who emphasize experience and learning
View development as slow and continuous
People who emphasize biological maturation
View development as a sequence of genetically predisposed stages. Everyone passes through stages in same order.
Jean Piaget (Psych type)
Cognitive development
Schemas
Mental representations of the world
Assimilation Schemas
Fitting new info into existing schemas
Accommodation Schemas
Modifying existing schemas to fit new info
Latent learning
Learning with no reinforcement or punishment
Sensorimotor stage
Birth to two years
Child doesn’t understand object permanence–>Starts to understand ~7mo–>Separation anxiety
- Separation anxiety peaks at 13mo
- Peek a boo
Object permanence
Objects exist even when out of view. Can lead to separation anxiety
Preoperational stage
Two years to six years
Understands words can symbolize things
(Contrary to Piaget three year olds can use model to do real thing. Piaget thought it happened later)
Egocentrism
Doesn’t understand conservation
Hide and seek
Pretend play
Egocentrism
Child believes that their perceptions are the same as everyone else’s
Present in pre-operational stage
Conservation
Understanding that an object can change shape without changing what the object is
Child in preoperational stage doesn’t understand it
Child in concrete operational stage does understand it
Concrete operational stage
Seven years to eleven years
- Begins when the child understands
conservation and is no longer
egocentric - Can think like adults but cannot
think abstractly - Learning to comprehend mathematical transformations
Formal operations stage
Twelve years and up
Able to reason on a logical hypothetical level
Abstract logic
Maturing moral reasoning
Temperament (definition)
Emotional reactivity and intensity
Temperament
- Heredity affects temperament
- Temperament affects attachment style
- Persists overtime (Most reactive newborns tend to be most reactive 9 month olds)
Prenatal development
Time from conception to birth
Germinal stage (Time)
Conception to two weeks
Germinal stage
- Zygote
- Cell division, mitosis
- Ends when the zygote implants in the uterine wall ~10 days
Embryonic stage (Time)
3-9 weeks
Embryonic stage
- Inner cells become embryo, outer cells become placenta
- Arms, legs, and tail start to develop
- Heart begins to beat
8 weeks = ~1 inch long
Fetal stage (Time)
9 weeks to birth
Fetal stage
- Cartilage in bones starts to harden
- Much growth of internal organs
- Fetus can squirm and kick
- Organs (such as stomach) develop fast enough so if the baby is born prematurely it will live
- Environmental factors affect development (~6mo fetus is responsive to sounds)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
- Facial and limb abnormalities
- Premature birth
- Intellectual disability
- Lower birth weight
- Small head circumference→Smaller brain
Effects of prematurity and low birth weight
- Increased risk of learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, ADHD, autism, dyslexia
- Hospital costs are higher
Brain (General)
- Born with 86 million neurons (Few connections when born)
- Areas underlying memory (hippocampus, frontal lobes) continue to mature during and after adolescence
Brain: Infancy
- Axons grow longer
- Connections grow
- Connections used are strengthened, those not used, shrink
- Infantile amnesia, but can still unconsciously learn
Brain: Early childhood
- Ages 3-6, most rapid brain growth in frontal lobes (rational planning)
- Traces of forgotten childhood languages may persist
- Association areas are the last cortical areas to develop
Brain: Late adulthood
- Longer reaction time (Can lead to inc in fatal accidents)
- Memory, diminishes
- Some impulsivity returns to frontal lobes (May be blunt or inappropriate)
- Amygdala responds less actively to negative events
- Brain-wave reactions to negative images diminish with age
Physical skills: Infancy
- Able to lift head on its own
- 5.5 months sit on their own
- 10 months crawling
- 12 months walking
- Depends on what season child is born in (Born in winter - learn to crawl and walk slower bc more clothes in the way. Born in summer - learn to crawl and walk faster bc less clothes)
- Skills cannot be done before necessary muscular and neural maturation (Bowel and bladder control. Nurture can speed up/slow down necessary muscular and neural maturation)
Piaget (Type Psych)
Cognitive development
Piaget (General)
- Intellectual progression reflects an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences
- Brain builds schemas: Concepts or mental molds where we sort our experiences
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
Piaget Stages and Ages
Sensorimotor stage (Birth-2 years)
Preoperational stage (2-6 years)
Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
Formal operations stage (12+ years)
End of history illusion
How social attitudes change
People believe they have changed but will change little in the future
Theory of Mind
People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states
Gradually develops
Early childhood
- Understands others emotions
- Begins to empathize
- Begins to learn how to persuade
- Learns that others may hold false beliefs
- Autism spectrum disorder
Early adulthood
- Peak of some types of learning and
memory
Late adulthood
- Troubles recalling words but number of
words recognized is stable w age
- More often experience tip-of-the-tongue
forgetting
All adulthood
- More education earlier in life predicts
better cognitive ability late in life
Autism spectrum disorder
Difficulty understanding that another’s state of mind differs from their own
Secure attachment
In mother’s presence they play comfortably. Still distressed when she leaves. Comforted when she returns.
Insecure attachment
Will not play comfortably in mother’s presence. Distressed when she leaves. Not comforted when she returns.
Mary Ainsworth (Study)
Had mothers and their young children come into the room. Mother leaves. Stranger comes in. Stranger leaves. Mother comes back in.
Mary Ainsworth (Styles of attachment)
Secure attachment
Ambivalent/resistant attachment
Disorganized attachment
Avoidant attachment
Secure attachment Mary Ainsworth
- Warm and affectionate mothers that respond to children when they cry
- Children grow up to be more sociable, competent, better with relationships, than those with insecure
- Children remember more positive things.
Ambivalent (resistant) attachment
Children give mixed messages about their relationship.
Disorganized attachment
- Children didn’t know how to respond. Holding their bodies in odd postures.
- Studies suggest this is due to abuse.
- Mothers have been inconsistent in their responses.
Avoidant attachment
- Weakest attachment. Didn’t have much of a relationship with their mother. Didn’t cry when mother left. Not upset when a stranger comes in.
- Mothers didn’t respond to their children.
Authoritarian Parenting
High expectations, no warmth. Sets the rules and expects them to be followed
- Emphasis on obedience to authority
- “Bc I said so”
- Uncommunicative and distant
- Preschool kids with these parents are more socially withdrawn, unhappy, lower performance in school
- Particularly harmful for boys
Authoritative Parenting
High expectations, warm. Set high but realistic standards.
- Parents explain their rules
- Children raised by this are more mature, independent, socially competent, higher academic performance, higher self esteem
Permissive Parenting
No expectations, warm. Make few rules or demands.
- Lets child find out and learn on their own
- Children raised by this are the least mature, are impulsive, lower self esteem, less self reliant
Neglectful Parenting
No expectations, no warmth. Unconcerned and uninvolved.
- Childs have delinquent behavior, earlier substance abuse, earlier sexual activity, etc.
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
Levels differ in the amount of internalization
Pre-conventional
Conventional
Post-conventional
Pre-conventional
Child bases morality on consequences
Conventional
Child bases morality on societal rules and laws
- Looking to an authority figure for morality
Post-conventional
Child bases morality on their own internalized version of what’s right or wrong.
Erik Erikson Adulthood commitments
Intimacy and Generativity
Intimacy
Forming close relationships
Generativity
Being productive and supporting future generations
Instinct theory
Theory of motivation
Theory that behavior is hardwired (This theory is now replaced by evolutionary perspective)
- Good explanation for animal but not humans
- Says that behavior is unlearned
- Although instinct isn’t good for most human motives, genes do predispose some species-typical behavior.
Drive-reduction theory
Theory of motivation
Biological needs drive our behavior. Based on homeostasis.
- Derives from the concept of homeostasis and that our bodies want a steady internal state
- Pushed by our inborn physiological needs (Drive)
- When a biological/physiological need
increases, our psychological drive to
reduce it increases.
- Unpleasant arousal drives our
behavior because we want the
unpleasant arousal to go away - Pulled by incentives in environment
- Positive or negative environmental
stimuli
Arousal theory
Theory of motivation
Theory that we are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousal
Moderate stimulation and anxiety can motivate us to increase arousal
Too much stimulation or stress motivates us to decrease arousal
Yerkes Dodson Law
Law that moderate arousal leads to optimal performance
Different tasks have different levels of arousal
- Challenging tasks optimal level of arousal
is lower
- Simple tasks optimal level of arousal is
higher
Expectancy theory
Theory of motivation
We expect certain outcomes to come about as a result of our behavior and those expected outcomes cause us to act the way we do.
Incentives: Positive or negative stimuli that motivate our behavior
Do tasks to help us avoid negative outcomes or to gain positive outcomes
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
Theory of motivation
Focuses on the priority of some needs over others. Bottom (physiological) needs must be met first before people can fulfill higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs.
- Self-actualization: Becoming the best person you can be. Fulfilling your potential. Finding meaning in life.
- Safety needs: Need to feel that the world is predictable and organized. Need to feel safe, secure, and stable. Ex: Shelter
- Physiological needs: Body needs. Food, water, air
Drive
Associated with drive-reduction theory
A state of arousal brought about by an underlying need which motivated one to engage in behavior that will satisfy the need and reduce the tension
Achievement motivation
Desire to accomplish something
Low vs high achievement motivation
People with low achievement motivation choose simple tasks or impossible tasks
People with high achievement motivation choose challenging, but not impossible, tasks
Intrinsic motivation
Internal factors drive motivation
Extrinsic motivation
External factors drive motivation
Conscious motivation
Motivation that occurs inside of awareness
Unconscious motivation
Motivation that occurs outside of awareness
Approachment motivation
Motivation that drives us to gain a positive outcome
Avoidance motivation
Motivation that drives us to avoid a negative outcome
Avoidance motivation is more powerful
Ex: Presidential ads talk about negative of other president
Goal setting
Need to achieve
- Make resolution
- Announce goals
- Develop and implementation plan
- Create short term goals that support long term goals
- Monitor and record progress
Primary drives
Hunger
Sex
Sexual response cycle - Stages
Excitement
Plateau
Orgasm
Resolution
Primary sex characteristics
Reproductive organs and external genitalia
Secondary sex characteristics
Nonreproductive sexual traits.
Ex: Breasts, wider hips. Deeper voice, body hair
James Lange Theory
Physiological changes→Emotion
Ex: Seeing a bear. Would be sweating and start running→Realize we’re experiencing fear
Canon Bard Theory
Physiological changes and Emotion at same time
Thought James Lange Theory was flawed
- Sometimes physiological response is after emotion
- Feel embarrassment then slowly face
turns red
- Thinks humans aren’t good at differentiating between bodily responses
- Sometimes there are physiological responses and not emotion
- Heart is beating fast but could just be
because you ran up stairs, and not
because of fear.
- People who have spinal cord severed still experience emotion
Two factor theory Schacter and Singer
Emotional stimuli→Arousal→Interpret arousal→Emotion
(Cognitive model)
Epinephrine study
Injected epinephrine (adrenaline) and some groups were told epinephrine could have side effects (inc heart rate) then put in room to fill out paperwork. Some people put up with someone who is angry, some with those that are happy.
- Epi informed and happy condition - Reported no change in mood bc they had an explanation for bodily response to epi
- Epi informed and anger condition - Reported no change in mood bc they had an explanation for bodily response to epi
- Epi uninformed and happy condition - Happy bc they had NO explanation for bodily response to epi so they needed to come up with an explanation
- Epi uninformed and anger condition - Angry bc they had NO explanation for bodily response to epi so they needed to come up with an explanation
Facial Feedback Theory
Signals from the face provide cues to emotional experience.
Stimulation of certain facial muscles changes people’s emotional states
- Comics were rated as funnier when a pencil was held between teeth
- Posed expressions associated with changes in emotion and changes in cerebral activation
- Botox injections lead to reduction in depression
Paul Ekman and Cal Izard Universal emotions
Happiness
Anger
Sadness
Surprise
Disgust
Fear
Interest
Emotion and cerebral laterality Theory
Left anterior activation
- Approach emotions
- Interest, happiness, anger
Right anterior activation
- Avoidance emotions
- Withdrawal related emotions
- Fear, disgust
Sadness is not withdrawal but rather a lack of approach emotions
Freud’s Theory
Early childhood conflicts have lasting effects.
- Personality is largely shaped by unconscious forces.
- Biological drives that influenced behavior
- Mind as an iceberg
- Structure of personality
Freud - Biological drives that influenced behavior
Eros
Thanatos
Eros
Freud’s theory of personality
What freud believes biologically drives us and influences our behavior
Life instinct. Need for food, water, air, sec
Thanatos
Freud’s theory of personality
What freud believes biologically drives us and influences our behavior
Death instinct. Desire to shut the world off and go back to a calm and lifeless state.
Freud believes our death instinct is turned towards other people and becomes sex and aggression
Freud - The structure of personality
Id
Ego
Superego
Id
Unconscious, primitive personality
- Most primitive
- Driven by the pleasure principle
- Ex: Crying baby. Born with it and needs it now. “Now, now, now”
- Source of the libido/psychic energy
Ego
- Driven by reality principle
- Trying to find ways for the id to be satisfied, but in an appropriate member
Superego
- “Internalized parent”
- Last part of personality to develop
Erogenous Zones
Failure to resolve conflicts at each stage would result in the individual being stuck at that stage and would be fixated
Oral stage (Time)
Erogenous Zone from 0-12/18 months
Oral stage
- Mouth is the erogenous zone
- Conflict with weaning of breast milk
- If weaning off goes poorly child can be stuck at oral stage
- Oral aggressive: Withdrawn from breast too early. (Biting)
- Oral dependant: Kept with breast too long. (Putting things in their mouths: Thumbs, Alcohol bottle, Cigarette, Chewing on nails)
Anal stage (Time)
Erogenous Zone from 12/18 months-3 years
Anal stage
Conflict with toilet training
Anal retentive:
Holds onto everything
Grow up to be controlling adults
Anal expulsive:
Grow up to be adults that are messy, sloppy
Phallic stage (Time)
Erogenous Zone from 3 years-5/6 years
Phallic stage
Oedipus Complex
Little boys love his mother and wants to possess her sexually→Problem-dad→Castration anxiety→Boy should give up sexual attraction and join dad and follow dad so he can grow up to be like his dad and get a wife like his mom
If it is not resolves
- Vain, full of themselves, where homosexuality comes from
Electra Complex
Little girls discover that she doesn’t have a bleep→Develops – envy→Needs to make love with father→Girl will realize that dad will never do that→Girl gives up and identifies with mother
Latency stage (Time)
Erogenous Zone from 5/6 years to puberty
Latency stage
All thoughts of sexual are gone
Concerned about friendship, learning, etc.
Conflict: Supposedly there is none
Genital stage (Time)
Erogenous Zone from puberty forward
Genital stage
Capable of mature sexual development
Repression
Freud
Not thinking about things that make us uncomfortable.
- Most basic defense mechanism
- Trying to forget about something
Denial
Freud
Extreme repression.
- Denying reality
- Ignoring the obvious
Projection
Freud
Putting our uncomfortable feelings onto other people.
- Ex: I’m not obsessed with him, he’s obsessed with me
Reaction formation
Freud
Defense mechanism
Express the complete opposite of the uncomfortable feeling.
- Ex: Feel angry but can’t express it so you express happiness.
- Heterosexual men arousal when women images
- Heterosexual men that are homophobic aroused when men images
Regression
Freud
Retreating back to an earlier state in our development.
- Ex: Temper tantrum, suck thumb, rock
Rationalization
Freud
Make excuses for our shortcomings and our values
- Ex: “I didn’t really want to do this anyway”
Displacement
Freud
Take uncomfortable thoughts and direct them towards a safer target.
- Ex: Punching a bag instead of person
- Ex: Punching kids instead of boss.
Identification
Freud
Take on the characteristics of someone who is more successful than you.
- Ex: Girl/boy taking on mom/dad in electra/oedipus complex
Sublimation
Freud
Taking aggressive and erotic desires to some behavior that benefits society.
- Freud believed the only reason we have culture is because of sublimation
Deficiency orientation
People who are focused on the things they don’t have.
- Not satisfied
- “Psychology of illness”
Growth orientation
People who focus on the things they do have.
- “Psychology of health”
Central traits
Gordon Allport
5-10 dominant traits that define a person.
Secondary traits
Gordon Allport
Aspects of a person that only apply to certain traits.
- Less dominant
- Can be altered
Cardinal trait
Gordon Allport
A single dominant trait that defines a person
- Explains all behavior
- Not everyone has a cardinal trait
- Ex: Gandhi
Raymond Cattell
Used factor analysis to come up with 16 factors
- Source traits
- Surface traits
Source traits
Raymond Cattell
Underlying fundamental dimensions of personality.
- Like central traits
Surface traits
Raymond Cattell
Superficial traits, based on combinations of source traits.
- Like secondary traits
The Big Five
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Neuroticism 5 traits
Emotional stability vs. instability.
High neuroticism: Prone to anxiety, mood swings, and negative emotions.
Low neuroticism: Calm, relaxed, and emotionally stable.
Social cognitive approach to personality
Thoughts about ourselves and our environment that determines our actions
- Walter Mischel - Person-situation controversy
- Bandura - Self-system, reciprocal feedback
- Rotter - Locus of control, expectancies
Walter Mischel - Person-situation controversy
Highlighted problems in personality theories
Traits vs environment
Traits are barely correlated to the behaviors people do
Argues that situation is a better predictor of behavior than traits
- Ex: Cheating at poker can predict if someone will cheat at euchre. Cheating at poker can’t predict if someone will cheat on gf.
Internal locus of control
Rotter - Locus of control, expectancies
Belief that our behavior/actions make a difference in the world
- Persevere more
External locus of control
Rotter - Locus of control, expectancies
Belief that our behavior/actions make a DON’T difference in the world
- Give up more easily
- Believe fate controls them
- More likely to be depressed
Agreeableness 5 traits
The tendency to be compassionate and cooperative.
High agreeableness: Warm, friendly, empathetic, and trusting.
Low agreeableness: Competitive, argumentative, and less empathetic.
Openness 5 traits
The degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity, and willingness to try new things.
High openness: Curious, imaginative, and open-minded.
Low openness: Conventional, prefer routine and familiarity.
Conscientiousness 5 traits
The degree of organization, dependability, and discipline.
High conscientiousness: Organized, reliable, and goal-oriented.
Low conscientiousness: Disorganized, careless, and less focused.
Extraversion 5 traits
The tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.
High extraversion: Outgoing, sociable, and energetic.
Low extraversion (introversion): Reserved, independent, and prefer solitude.
Bandura - Reciprocal Determinism
Personality
Reciprocal Determinism: Behavior, cognitive factors, and environmental influences all interact and influence each other in a continuous cycle.
Self-System: The cognitive processes, beliefs, and personal factors that help individuals evaluate and respond to their environment.
Approach emotions
- Interest, happiness, anger
- Left anterior activation
Avoidance emotions
- Withdrawal related emotions
- Fear, disgust
- Right anterior activation
