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Exam 3 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

cell biology

A

the study of individual cells and their interactions with each other

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2
Q

cell theory

A
  1. all living organisms are composed of 1+ cells
  2. cells are the smallest units of life
  3. new cells come from pre-existing cells
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3
Q

stages of life theory

A
  1. nucleotides and amino acids were produced prior to cells
  2. nucleotides became polymerized to form RNA and DNA ==> amino acids were polymerized to form proteins
  3. polymers became enclosed in membranes
  4. polymers enclosed in cell membranes acquired properties associated with living cells via chemical selection
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4
Q

primordial soup hypothesis

A

organic molecules formed spontaneously formed through prebiotic and abiotic synthesis

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5
Q

prebiotic soup

A

slow acumulation of organic molecules in the early oceans of a long period of time

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6
Q

reduced atmosphere hypothesis

A

rich in water vapor, hydrogen gas, methane, and ammonia and lacked atmospheric oxygen => redox reactions are required to form complex organic molecules

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7
Q

arguments against reduced atmosphere hypothesis

A

early earth was a neutral gaseous mixture and earth had a high UV that would destroy NH4 and NH3

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8
Q

extraterrestrial hypothesis and objections

A

molecules came from asteroids => material would be destroyed by intense heat

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9
Q

deep sea vent

A

superheated rich metal ion and hydrogen sulfide vents mixed with cold seawater => molecules are formed in the surrounding mixed water gradients

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10
Q

polymers like nucleotides and amino acids like to form under what conditions?

A

non aqueous or mild aqueous conditions

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11
Q

protobiont

A

a prebiotically produced molecule/macromolecule that acquired a boundary (lipid bilayer similarity) that allowed an internal chemical environment different from its surroundings

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12
Q

protobiont key features

A
  1. membrane boundary
  2. polymers inside containing information
  3. polymers having catalytic functions
  4. developing capability of self replication
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13
Q

liposome

A

vesicles surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer

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14
Q

2 special RNA properties:

A

stores information for self replication (1) and performance of catalytic functions (2)

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15
Q

ribozymes

A

molecules catalyzing chemical reactions

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16
Q

chemical selection

A

chemical mixtures have special advantages that cause it to increase in amounts relative to other chemicals

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17
Q

chemical evolution

A

molecules change over time to have different chemical composition

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18
Q

micrograph

A

image taken with the aid of a microscope

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19
Q

resolution

A

measure of the clarity of an image between adjacent objects

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20
Q

contrast

A

difference in light, dark, and color between adjacent regions

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21
Q

magnification

A

ratio between image size and actual size

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22
Q

transmission electron microscopy

A

electrons go through slices of a biological sample

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23
Q

scanning electron microscopy => heavy metal and copper crid

A

views surfaces of biological samples => heavy metals

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24
Q

prokaryotes

A

bacteria are 1-10 micrometer

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25
Q

nucleoid

A

non membrane bound compartment

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26
Q

ribosomes

A

synthesize polypeptides

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27
Q

cell wall composition

A

peptides and carbohydrates, relatively porous

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28
Q

glycocalyx

A

secreted by many bacteria that traps water and prevents drying out

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29
Q

capsule

A

very thick glycocalyx that only some bacteria have

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30
Q

pilli

A

unique to bacteria and allow cells to attach to surfaces and one another

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31
Q

Eukaryotes (animal cells)

A
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32
Q

Eukaryotes (plant cell)

A
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33
Q

droplet organelle

A

molecules are brought close together and can assemble into complexes with different internal chemical environments

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34
Q

cytosol

A

outside organelles but inside the plasma membrane

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35
Q

cytoplasm

A

internal of a cell

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36
Q

metabolism

A

the sum of chemical reactions when cells produce materials for life sustainment

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37
Q

catabolism

A

break down of am molecule into smaller compartments

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38
Q

anabolism

A

synthesis of molecules and macromolecules

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39
Q

microtubules

A

hollow tubes made of tubular that help with cell shape, organization, chromosomal sorting, etc.

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40
Q

intermediate filaments

A

composed of different proteins twisted into filaments to help with cell shape, anchorage of cells, and the nuclear membrane

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41
Q

actin filaments

A

2 intertwined strands of actin (protein) that help with cell shape, strength, muscle contraction, intracellular movement, etc.

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42
Q

centrosome

A

nondividing animal cells have a microtubule organizing center where they grow

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43
Q

centrioles

A

in the centrosome, pair of structures arranged perpendicular where microtubules grow at the centrosome and minus end is anchored

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44
Q

keratinocytes

A

hair, nails, and surface of our skin form intermediate filaments

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45
Q

motor proteins

A
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46
Q

movement of cargo

A

kinesin

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47
Q

movement of filament

A

Actin

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48
Q

bending of filament

A

Dynein

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49
Q

cilia

A

specific to eukaryotes, cell appendages that are shorter and clustered

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50
Q

axoneme

A

has microtubules, the motor protein dyne, and linking proteins => 9v + 2 arrangement

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51
Q

basal bodies

A

anchored to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane from a triplet structure

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52
Q

nucleus

A
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53
Q

nuclear lamina

A

intermediate filaments that line the inner nuclear membrane

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54
Q

internal nuclear matrix

A

connected to the lamina and fills the interior of the nucleus

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55
Q

nucleolus

A

droplet organelle in the nucleus where ribosomes make RNA molecules that exit and synthesize polypeptides

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56
Q

lumen

A

internal space of an organelle

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57
Q

rough ER

A

studded with ribosomes for sorting proteins destined for other endomembrane destinations and attaching carbohydrates to proteins and lipids

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58
Q

smooth ER

A

conversion of toxic molecules to non toxic, break down glycogen and export liver, synthesize hormones, modify lipids, etc.

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59
Q

cis golgi

A

near the ER

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60
Q

trans golgi

A

closest to plasma membrane

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61
Q

vesicular model

A

materials of the golgi fuse from one compartment to another

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62
Q

cisternal maturation model

A

vesicles fuse and push old golgi toward cell membrane

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63
Q

golgi

A

processing, protein sorting, secretion

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64
Q

Eukaryotes (plant cells)

A
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65
Q

droplet organelle

A

molecules are brought together where the internal environment is chemically different from the outside

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66
Q

proteome

A

complete set of proteins a cell is currently making or can make

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67
Q

cytosol

A

outside the organelles but inside the plasma membrane

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68
Q

metabolism

A

sum of chemical reactions by which cells produce materials and utilize the energy necessary to sustain life

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69
Q

catabolism

A

breakdown of a molecule into smaller components

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70
Q

anabolism

A

synthesis of molecules and macromolecules

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71
Q

microtubules

A

hollow and composed of tubulin => cell shape, organization, chromosome sorting, etc.

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72
Q

intermediate filaments

A

composed of different proteins => cell shape, anchorage of cells, and nuclear membranes

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73
Q

actin filaments

A

2 intertwined strands composed of actin => cell shape, cell strength, muscle contraction, cell movement, etc.

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74
Q

centrosome

A

has the organizing center where microtubules grow at the positive end

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75
Q

centrioles

A

in the centrosome and arranged perpendicular where the microtubule growth starts at the minus end

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76
Q

keratinocytes

A

proteins called keratins are important for cell shape and mechanical strength in skin, intestinal, and kidney cells

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77
Q

nuclear lamins

A

network of intermediate filaments lining the inner nuclear membrane and providing anchor points for nuclear pores

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78
Q

motor proteins

A

have head, hinge, and tail and use ATP as a source of energy to promote movements

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79
Q

kinesin

A

walk along microtubules form the minus to plus end

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80
Q

myosin

A

fix in place and cause actin filaments to move to the left

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81
Q

dynein

A

linker protein fixed in place that causes microtubules to bend

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82
Q

cilia

A

cell appendages that are shorter and clustered that cause movement by bending and pushing against fluid

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83
Q

axoneme

A

has microtubules arranged in 9v + 2 and dynein

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84
Q

basal body

A

anchored to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane and microtubules form triplet structures

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85
Q

nucleus

A

in eukaryotic cells that contains genetic material

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86
Q

endomembrane system

A

nuclear envelope, ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, and peroxisomes

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87
Q

nuclear lamina

A

intermediate filaments lining the inner nuclear membrane

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88
Q

internal nuclear matrix

A

connected to the lamina and fills the interior of the nucleus

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89
Q

chromosome territory

A

each chromosome is located in a distinct territory

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90
Q

nucleolus

A

droplet organelle in the nucleus of nondividing cells where ribosomes are made

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91
Q

lumen

A

internal space of an organelle

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92
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

studded with ribosomes that sort proteins destined for other places and performs glycosolation (attachment of carbs to proteins or lipids)

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93
Q

proteases

A

make cuts in the polypeptides

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94
Q

secretory vesicles

A

fuse with the plasma membrane to release contents

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95
Q

lysosomes

A

found in animal cells and break down molecules and macromolecules => contain acid hydrolases that use H2O to break covalent bonds

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96
Q

vacuoles

A

contain fluid and solid substances from fusion of many smaller membrane vesicles

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97
Q

peroxisomes

A

found in eukaryotes that catalyze chemical reactions and break down toxic molecules

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98
Q

catalase

A

breaks down hydrogen peroxide to make water and oxygen gas

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99
Q

glyoxysomes

A

in plant seeds and similar to peroxisomes but store fats instead of carbs

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100
Q

cell adhesion

A

protein-protein interactions in the plasma membrane

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101
Q

cristae

A

inner membrane of the mitochondria where ATP is made

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102
Q

mitochondrial matrix

A

compartment enclosed by the inner membrane

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103
Q

chloroplast

A

contains thylakoid membrane with granum and storm where inner membrane encloses the thylakoid membrane

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104
Q

plastids

A

plant organelles that have synthetic ability and contain pigments

105
Q

endosymbiosis theory

A

mitochondria came from proteobacterium engulfed by an archaea and then chloroplasts later came from cyanobacteria

106
Q

sorting/traffic signals

A

proteins containing short amino acid sequencing directing them to certain cellular locations

107
Q

cotranslational sorting

A

begins while translation is occurring and proteins are uptook into the ER before being synthesized and packaged to other endomembrane organs

108
Q

post translational sorting

A

proteins are synthesized in the cytosol and then sent to either nucleus, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts

109
Q

ER signal sequence

A

sequence on amino acids that directs them to the rough ER (6-12 amino acids long)

110
Q

signal recognition particle (SRP)

A

signal sequence emerges from a ribosome and is recognized to pause translation

111
Q

chaperones

A

keeps proteins made in the cytosol in an unfolded state until a receptor protein recognizes its targeting sequence and is released (related to mitochondria)

112
Q

systems biology

A

study of how new properties of life emerge through interacting of its components

113
Q

4 systems of a eukaryote

A
  1. interior, cytosol, end-membrane, and semiautonomous organelles
114
Q

Vector gene cloning

A

DNA is taken from a larger strand and introduced into a plasma vector where it can be replicated to produce identical copies of the gene

115
Q

plasmids

A

circular pieces of DNA found in bacteria

116
Q

viral vectors

A

derived from viruses that can infect living cells and propagate themselves by taking control of the host cells metabolism => chromosomal genes inserted into viral vectors are replicated when the viral DNA is replicated

117
Q

restriction enzymes

A

made by bacteria and bind to a specific palindromic sequence to cut

118
Q

annealing

A

sticky ends of apiece of chromosomal DNA and the vector hydrogen bond with one another until ligated together by ligase

119
Q

recombinant vector

A

when DNA is ligated to both sticky ends in the vectored and inserted

120
Q

competency

A

ability of bacterial cells to take up DNA from the extracellular environment

121
Q

selectable marker

A

the presence of an antibiotic selects for growth of cells expressing certain genes like ampR that encodes for Beta-lactamase that degrades ampicillin

122
Q

DNA library

A

collection of recombinant vectors containing DNA fragments of an organism and used to obtain clones carrying a gene of interest

123
Q

genomic library

A

inserts are derived from chromosomal DNA

124
Q

complementary DNA (cDNA)

A

recombinant vectors that have inserts from mRNA through reverse transcriptase => lacks introns

125
Q

gel eletrophoresis

A

separates macromolecules toward the positively charged end

126
Q

PCR

A
  1. DNA
  2. 2 primers for denaturation, annealing, and extension
  3. Taq polymerase
  4. dNTPs
  5. buffer solution
  6. thermocycler
127
Q

DNA sequencing

A

determines the base sequence of DNA

128
Q

functional genomics

A

studies expression and analyzes which genes are turned on and off in various situations

129
Q

dideoxy sequencing

A

based on DNA replication where DNA polymerase connects adjacent dNTPs by catalyzing a covalent link => synthesize nucleotides ddNTPs that dont have the OH at the 3’ end and then added to a primer solution with each complementary dd fluorescently tagged

130
Q

transcriptome

A

set of all RNA molecules transcribed in a cell or in a population of cells

131
Q

DNA microarray

A

glass is dotted with many different sequences of single stranded DNA that correspond to a short sequence of a known gene => determines which genes are transribed from a particular sample of cells where fluorescently labeled cDNAs are incubated in the microarray and excess is washed away

132
Q

RNA sequencing

A

when RNA is obtained, they are fragmented into small pieces and cDNAs are produced through transcriptase that undergoes DNA sequencing to produce a collection of cDNA sequences

133
Q

crisper-cas

A

RNA is created where tracrRNA and crRNA are covalently linked to a single guide RNA (sgRNA) => sgRNA binds to the proteinCas9 and guides it to the targes gene where cas make a double strand break

134
Q

immunoglobins

A

class of glycoproteins present in the serum or tissue fluids of all mammals produced by plasma cells as an immune response (Ig G,A,M,D, and E)

135
Q

immunogens

A

specific types of antigens that trigger an adaptive immune response

136
Q

antibodies

A

found in the blood or lymph and recognize an epitope => contains a constant light chain (C terminal half) and variable light chain (N terminus)

137
Q

Immunofluorescent microscopy

A

uses fluorophore to locate antibodies in cells after the solvent is fixed and permeabilized (methanol or acetone) so primary and secondary antibodies can be added
1. can be directly labeled by a detector antibody
2. can label a secondary antibody indirectly that recognizes a detector antibody

138
Q

Western blot

A
  1. tissue is prepared by cells being lysed (sonified by buffers and detergents) to release proteins
  2. gel electrophoresis separated molecules by weight and charge => native PAGE separates by charge to mass ratio
  3. transferred from the gel electrophoresis onto a membrane
  4. immunoblotting where antibodies are added and detected using film
139
Q

co-immunoprecipitation

A

shows protein complexes
1. lyse cell and centrifuge
2. add antibody to corresponding protein and beads to then pull them down through centrifugation again
3. wash and elute proteins so antibodies and all proteins are separated
4. gel electrophoresis
5. transfer to membrane and use second antibody
6. use film to show where second antibody shows up

140
Q

lipids

A

(not macromolecules) hydrophobic and composed mainly of hydrogen and carbon => fats, phospholipids, steroids, waxes, etc.

141
Q

triglycerides

A

also known as fats and form when glycerol bonds to 3 fatty acids

142
Q

saturated fatty acid

A

when all carbons are fully connected to hydrogens and sp3 hybridized => solid at room temp

143
Q

unsaturated fatty acids

A

fatty acids containing one or more double bonds causing kinks => liquid at room temp and most biological fats exist like this in the cis form

144
Q

phospholipids

A

the third hydroxyl group contains a phosphate linkted to a small polar or charged nitrogen molecule => hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail (amphipathic)

145
Q

steroids

A

fats that are 4 fused rings with one or more polar hydroxyl groups attached => 1 hydroxy group is called sterol(s)

146
Q

plasma membrane

A

encloses the cytoplasm => selective uptake, cell compartmentalization, protein sorting, anchoring of cytoskeleton, production of energy intermediate like ATP and NADH, signaling, division, and adhesion

147
Q

phospholipid bilayer

A

2 layers of amphipathic with covalently bonded glycoproteins and glycolipids

148
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

membrane structure containing all 3 macromolecules resembling a fluid because lipids and proteins can move relative to one another in the membrane

149
Q

leaflet

A

half of the phospholipid bilayer where the glycolipids are primarily found in the extracellular leaflet

150
Q

transmembrane proteins

A

have one or more regions physically embedded in the hydrophobic interior

151
Q

integral proteins

A

cannot be released from the membrane unless it is dissolved => transmembrane and lipid anchored proteins

152
Q

peripheral proteins

A

noncovalently bound to the hydrophilic regions of the integral membrane proteins or polar heads of the bilayer

153
Q

semi-fluidity

A

phospholipid molecules can rotate on their own axis or move laterally without energy or be flipped to the opposite side by flippase with ATP

154
Q

lipid raft

A

group of lipids floating together as a unit in a larger sea of lipids that may play a role in endocytosis and cell signaling

155
Q

length of phosholipid tails

A

shorter tails make the bilayer more fluid and longer ones make it less fluid due to hydrogen bonding

156
Q

double bonds in the bilayer

A

unsaturated fats make the bilayer more fluid and saturated makes it less fluid

157
Q

cholesterol and temperature

A

at high temps it makes the membrane less fluid but at low temps it makes it more fluid

158
Q

lipid synthesis at the ER membrane

A

occurs in the cytosolic leaflet of the smooth ER where 2 fatty acids and 1 glycerol molecule and 1phosphate with a polar head group are made with enzymes

159
Q

lipid exchange proteins

A

extract a lipid from one membrane and diffuse it through the cell to be inserted into another lipid membrane

160
Q

transmembrane protein insertion into the ER membrane

A

most transmembrane proteins have an ER signal sequence and if it contains a 20 amino acid stretch that is mostly hydrophobic to form an alpha helix it goes to the phospholipid membrane bilayer

161
Q

glycosylation

A

covalently attaching carbohydrates to lipids or proteins

162
Q

N-linked glycosylation

A

attachment of a carbohydrate to the amino acid asparganine nitrogen on the side chain

163
Q

O-linked glycosylation

A

only occurs in the golgi where a string of sugars are added to the oxygen of a serine or threonine side chain polypeptide

164
Q

membrane trasnport

A

movement of ions and molecules across a biological membrane

165
Q

selective permeability

A

passage of certain ions and molecules but not others across the membrane

166
Q

simple diffusion

A

when a substance moves across a membrane from a high to low concentration area passing through the bilayer

167
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

transport proteins provide passage across a membrane from a high to low concentration

168
Q

active transport

A

moves a substance from a low to high concentration with ATP and a transmembrane protein

169
Q

factors allowed to pass through the bilayer:

A
170
Q

chemical gradient

A
171
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

electrical gradients are due to the different amounts of ions on both sides of the membrane

172
Q

isotonic

A

concentrations are the same on both sides

173
Q

hypertonic

A

concentrations are higher outside the cell than inside

174
Q

hypotonic

A

concentrations are lower outside the cell than inside

175
Q

osmosis

A

if a solute cannot readily mobr across a membrane then water will move from a low solute concentration to a high one

176
Q

plasmolysis

A

water will exit the cell if it is hypertonic and the plasma membrane will pull away from the cell wall

177
Q

channel (gated)

A

transmembrane protein that forms an open passageway for facilitated diffusion of ions or molecules

178
Q

ligands

A

controlled by noncovalent binding of small molecules like hormones or neurotransmitters

179
Q

aquaporin

A

transmembrane protein that allows water to diffuse through it

180
Q

transporters

A

bind to one or more solutes in a hydrophilic pocket and undergo a conformational change to switch exposure on a membrane side

181
Q

uniporter

A
182
Q

symporter

A
183
Q

antiporter

A
184
Q

primary active transport

A

passes solutes through the membrane against the concentration gradient

185
Q

pump

A

transporter that directly uses energy to transport a solute against a concentration gradient

186
Q

secondary active transport

A

a pre-existing gradient drives the active transport of another solute

187
Q

electrogenic pump (nerve cell)

A

produces an electrical gradient across the membrane

188
Q

E1

A

3 Na+ binds and the phosphate on ATP is temporarily bound to the pump (phosphorylation)

189
Q

E2

A

2 K+ binding causes a release of phosphate to switch back to the E1 conformation

190
Q

exocytosis

A

materials in the cell are packaged into vesicles and excreted into the extracellular matrix => vesicles usually come the golgi (ex: hormones or digestive enzymes)

191
Q

endocytosis

A

the plasma membrane invaginates to form a vesicle that brings a substance into a cell

192
Q

receptor mediated

A

receptor in the plasma membrane is specific to cargo and stimulates endocytosis

193
Q

pinocytosis

A

formation of a membrane vesicle from the plasma membrane for cells to sample extracellular fluid

194
Q

phagocytosis

A

formation of an enormous membrane vesicle (phoneme) that engulfs a large particle like a bacterium => done by macrophages

195
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

196
Q

signal

A

agent that can influence the properties of cells

197
Q

receptor

A

where a signal is recognized by a cellular protein

198
Q

cellular response

A

ability to respond to change in cells

199
Q

direct intercellular signaling

A

adjacent cells have cell junctions that enable them to pass ions, molecules, and other materials

200
Q

contact dependent signaling

A

molecules that are bound to the surface of a cell and provide signals to others that make contact with them

201
Q

autocrine signaling

A

cells secrete signaling molecules that bind to receptors on their own surface and neighboring cells of the same type

202
Q

paracrine signaling

A

specific cells secrete a signal that doesn’t affect the cell but influences the behavior of target cells in close proximity => neurotransmitters

203
Q

endocrine signaling

A

signaling over long distances => hormones

204
Q

receptor activation

A

a signaling molecule will bind to a receptor of the target cell causing a conformational change to activate its function

205
Q

signal transduction

A

initial signal is converted or transduced to a different signal inside the cell

206
Q

signal transduction pahway

A

process carried out by signaled cells resulting in the production of intracellular signaling molecules

207
Q

cellular response

A

cells respond in several ways by altering the activities of one or more enzymes, altering structural proteins, or affecting function of transcription factors regulating genes

208
Q

ligand

A

the signal molecule that binds covalently when it collides in the correct orientation with enough energy to make a complex

209
Q

cell surface receptors

A

receptors in the plasma membrane that enable to cell to respond to different kinds of extracellular signaling

210
Q

enzyme linked

A

signaling molecules bind to the extracellular domain and the conformation change is transmitted through the membrane portion of the protein

211
Q

protein kinases

A

transfers a phosphate group from ATP to a specific amino acid in a protein => enzyme linked receptor

212
Q

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)

A

in all eukaryotic cells, contain 7 transmembrane segments that wind back and forth, and interact with the G-protein

213
Q

G-proteins

A

bind to guanosine triphosphate (GTP) that causes a conformational change into an alpha and beta/gamma dimer => the alpha subunit interacts with other proteins in a transduction pathway and the beta/gamma dimer plays a role in transduction

214
Q

ligand gated ion channels

A

proteins allowing the diffusion of ions across cell membranes

215
Q

growth factor

A

signaling molecule that promotes cell division

216
Q

receptor tyrosine kinases

A

an enzyme-linked receptor category in all animals and protists that plays a role in signaling molecules

217
Q

3 parts of a signal transductino pathway

A
  1. relay proteins (kinase cascade)
  2. protein kinase cascade => phosphorylates intracellular proteins like transcription factors
  3. phosphorylated transcription factors => stimulates gene expression
218
Q

second messengers

A

small molecules or ions that relay signals inside the cell => result in second messenger production and act quickly

219
Q

adenylyl cyclase

A

enzyme in the plasma membrane the is stimulated to synthesize cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) from ATP

220
Q

cAMP signal transduction pathway

A

Epinephrine is the signal molecule that binds to a receptor activating a G protein => alpha subunit activates adenylyl cyclase to catalyze cAMP that activates PKA: 2 units phosphorylate specific cellular proteins and 2 regulatory subunits inhibit the catalytic subunits when bound (camp binds to the regulatory subunits and allows the catalytic subunits to activate)

221
Q

PKA cellular repsonse

A

catalytic subunits of PKA phosphorylates specific cellular proteins such as enzymes, structural proteins, or transcription factors => glycolysis synthesis is to make glycogen and cAMP prevents glycogen synthesis

222
Q

phosphodiesterase

A

converts cAMP to AMP and causes cAMP levels to decrease => regulatory units of PKA and all 4 units reassociate to reverse the effects of PKA

223
Q

signal amplification

A

amplification of the signal involves the synthesis of many cAMP moleucules that activate PKA to phosphorylate more target proteins

224
Q

second messenger advantages

A

signal amplification and speed

225
Q

crosstalk

A

one or more components of one signal transduction pathway affect a different signal transduction pathway

226
Q

Apoptosis pathway

A
227
Q

extrinsic pathway

A

begins with activation of death cells and initiates a pathway to apoptosis

228
Q

death receptors

A

when bound to extracellular signaling molecules the pathways is initiated to apoptosis

229
Q

caspase

A

functions as a protease enzyme that digests other proteins to initiate other activations => initiates executioners or effectors that digest intracellular proteins and cause cell death, also initiates DNase enzyme that chops the DNA into fragments

230
Q

intrinsic pathway (mitochondrial pathway )

A

stimulated by DNA damage that can cause cancer, mitochondria release cytochrome C into the cytosol to form a complex with other proteins called apoptosome to initiate caspases

231
Q

extracellular matric (ECM)

A

the space outside of cells in animals primarily made of proteins and polysaccharides that form large fibers and attract water

232
Q

cell wall

A

the space outside of plant cells

233
Q

ECM functions

A

strength, structural support, organization of bodily cells, and cell signaling

234
Q

collagen

A

proteins that form fibers and network that provides tensile strength

235
Q

elastin

A

forms elastic fibers in the ECM that can stretch and recoil through covalent crosslinks

236
Q

laminin

A

connects cells to the ECM and helps to organize components in the ECM

237
Q

fibroconectin

A

connects cells to the ECM and helps to organize components in the ECM

238
Q

glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

A

the most abundant type of polysaccharides in the ECM containing a repeatable disaccharide unit

239
Q

chitin

A

in the ECM of many invertebrates and contains nitrogen => forms the protective outer covering

240
Q

cellulose

A

polysaccharide made of repeating molecules of glucose attached end to end => provide tensile strength for the cell via hydrogen bonding

241
Q

primary cell wall

A

very flexible and allows new cells to increase in size => mostly made of cellulose and some other parts including hemicellulose (polysaccharide), glycans, and pectin

242
Q

secondary cell wall

A

synthesized and deposited between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall after maturation stops => layers of cellulose microfibrils and logins, etc. => very strong

243
Q

cell junction

A

linkage of 2 cells through specialized structures

244
Q

anchoring junctions

A

anchor cells to each other or to the ECM in parts of the body where cells are tightly connected to form linings

245
Q

Cell adhesion of molecules (CAMs)

A

form actual connections at anchoring junctions through cadherins and integrins

246
Q

cadherin

A

CAMs that create cell to cell junctions by two cadherin proteins in adjacent cells binding to one another with Ca2+ => connected to linker proteins on the inside

247
Q

Integrin

A

connect adjacent cells together and to the ECM without calcium => 2 subunits and bound to fibronectin (adhesive protein) that binds to other ECM components like collagen

248
Q

tight junctions

A

forms a tight seal between adjacent cells to prevent material from leaking between them => made by transmembrane proteins occuldin and claudin

249
Q

4 types of anchoring junctions

A

adherens, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and focal adhesion

250
Q

adherens junctions

A

connect cells via cadherins and organizes them to bind to actin cytoskeletal filaments

251
Q

desmosomes

A

connect cells via cadherins and are spotlike connecting points that connect cells to intermediate cytoskeletal filaments

252
Q

hemidesmosomes

A

connect cells to the extracellular matrix through integrins and interact with intermediate filaments

253
Q

focal adhesions

A

connect cells to the ECM through integrins and bind to actin filaments

254
Q

T/F tight junctions form strong connections with the cytoskeleton?

A

false => makes them mechanically weak compared to anchoring so the two must occur at the same time

255
Q

gap junction

A

gap between the plasma membranes of cells allowing small molecules and ions through => composed of integral and membrane protein connexin

256
Q

connexin

A

6 connexin proteins form a channel in the plasma membrane in vertebrates that cluster close enough to form an intercellular channel for small ions and molecules to go through

257
Q

middle lamella

A

between most adjacent plant cells (formed before primary cell wall) and is rich in pectins (neg charged polysaccharides) that attract water and produce a hydrated gel and create rigidity

258
Q

plasmodesmata

A

ducts or intercellular channels in plant cells like gap junctions => has a central desmotubule connecting smooth ER membrane between cell pores

259
Q

T/F Plasmodesmata can open and close?

A

True, in the open conformation they allow passage of ions and small molecules like sugar or cAMP and close when there are pressure differences

Biology (5 decks)

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