Exam 3 Flashcards
Define adaptive immunity
induced resistance to a specific pathogen
What is humoral immunity and what is cellular immunity
humoral: due to antibodies from B lymphocytes (B cells) that mature in the bone marrow(not born with these, we develop these as different antigens come)
cellular: T lymphocytes (T cells) mature in thymus and don’t produce antibodies but do produce specific signals (cytokines) that direct B cell specificity. (born with these)
define serology
the study of reactions between antibodies and antigens
define antiserum
the generic term for serum because it contains Ab (antibodies)
define globulins
serum proteins
define immunoglobulins
antibodies
define Antigen (Ag)
a substance that causes the body to produce specific antibodies or sensitized T cells
What is hapten
antigen is combined with carrier molecules
What do antibodies (Ab) interact with
epitopes or antigenic determinants
what does the number of antigen binding sites determine
the variable portions of the H and L chains.
what are the classes of immunoglobulins
IgG
IgM
IgA
IgD
IgE
what do IgG antibodies do and where are they located
fix complement and enhance phagocytosis; neutralize toxins and viruses; protects fetus and newborn
in blood lymph and intestine
what do IgM antibodies do and where are they located
fix complement and agglutinates microbes; first Ab produced in response to infection
found in blood, lymph and on B cells
what do IgA antibodies do and where are they located
in secretions (mucous, saliva, tears, breast milk)
mucosal protection
what do IgD antibodies do and where are they located
on B cells, initiate immune response
in blood in lymph and on B cells
what do IgE antibodies do and where are they located
allergic reactions; lysis of parasitic worms
on mast cells, on basophils and in blood
How are B cells activated
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) expressed on mammalian cells act to recognize antigens (memory cells)
T-dependent antigens (stronger immune response)
what are the results of Ag-Ab binding
antibodies bind to a specific region of the antigen referred to as the epitope (or antigenic determinant) the strength of binding is the affinity
foreign organims and toxins are rendered harmless by different types of antibodies
define agglutination
antibodies cause antigens to clump together and they faciliate phagocytosis
define opsonization
antibodies coat the foreign molecule and they facilitate phagocytosis
define antibody-dependent cell mediated immunity
antibodies coat the foreign molecule resembling opsonization
destruction of the target cell is by immune systems that remain external to the target cell
define complement fixation
bound antibodies activate complement
complement lysis the pathogen
define neutralization
antibodies coat the pathogen and block the attachment to the host cell
what do T cells specialize in
where do they mature
what do they respond to
what to T cells require
specialize in recognizing intracellular antigens
T cells mature in the thymus
T cells respond to Ag by T cell receptors (TCRs)
T cells require antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
pathogens entering the GI or respiratory tract pass through
what do T-helper cells (Th) do
cooperate with B cells in the production of antibodies mainly through the production of cytokines
T helper-> B cells (antibodies)
what do T cytotoxic cells (Tc) do
differentiate into effector cells called cytotoxic T cells (CTLs)
define apoptosis and how does it work
is a type of programmed cell death
cells first cut their genomes into fragments and external membranes bluge outward (blebbing)
signals expressed on surface attract circulating phagocytes
what do T Regulatory cells do
they combat autoimmunity by suppressing T cells that escape deletion in the thymus and have the potential to react with the bodys self molecules
this is how pregnant women by protecting the fetus from rejection as nonself
what do antigen-presenting cells do?
digest antigen
present Ag fragments on their surface with MHC
After taking up antigen, APCs migrate to the lymph nodes and lymphoid centers on the mucosa where they present antigen to T cells
How do antigen-presenting cells present Ag fragments on their surface with MHC
B cells
Dendritic cells
Activated macrophages
what do natural killer cells do
kill virus-infected and tumor cells
important in attacking parasites
they are not immunologically specific
cause pores to form in the target cell and cause lysis or apoptosis
granular leukocytes destroy cells that dont express MHC 1, they are not CTLs
what is the function of T Helper (TH1) cell
activates cells related to cell-mediated immunity, macrophages, Tc cells and natural killer cells
what is the function of T Helper (TH2) cell
stimulates production of eosinophils, IgM and IgE
what is the function of Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte (CTL)
destroys target cells on contact; generated form T cytotoxic (Tc)
what is function of T Regulatory (Treg) cell
regulates immune response and helps maintain tolerance
what is the function of activated macrophage
enhanced phagocytic activity; attacks cancer cells
what is the function of natural killer (NK) cell
attacks and destroys target cells; participates in antibody-dependent cell-medicated cytotoxicity
what is immunological memory
it is how our body remembers and responds to antigens
what is antibody titer
is the amount of Ab in serum; is reflective of intensity of antibody mediated humoral response
immunological memory
what is primary response
occurs after the initial contact with Ag
immunological memory
what is the secondary (memory or anamnestic) response
occurs after second exposure
remember this and understand it
explain naturally acquired active immunity
resulting from infection
explain naturally acquired passive immunity
transplacental or via colostrum
explain artificially acquire active immunity
injection of Ag (vaccination)
explain artificial acquired passive immunity
injection of Ab
what is a extremophiles
live in extreme environments (pH, temp, salinity)
what is the definition of symbiosis
two differing organisms living together in close association that is beneficial to one or both of them
what is mycorrhizae
fungi living in close association with plant roots
extend surface area of roots and increase the absorption of nutrients, especially phosphorous
biogeochemical cycles
per 1 gram of soil how much bacteria
1 gram of soil may contain up to 1 billion bacteria
biogeochemical cycles
per 1 mL of ocean water how much bacteria
1 mL of ocean water can contain up to 1 million bacteria
what does biogeochemical cycles do
involved in the recycling (oxidation and reduction) of chemical elements
many are symbionts of plants (rhizobia)
microbes in soil metabolize organic matter, form detritus (non-living particulate organic matter)
define topography
the chemical composition of the soil
presence of living organisms determines the quality of soil
explain the microbiology of soil (what does it contain)
soil contains 40-45% inorganic matter, 5% organic matter, 25% water and 25% air
what is humus and what is it composed of
the organic material in soil
composed of microorganisms (dead and alive) and decaying plants
what is the inorganic material of soil
composed of rock, which is broken down into small particles of sand silt and clay
What is the O horizon
AKA topsoil
is made of decaying organisms and plant life; it is responsible for plant production
what is the A horizon
mixture of organic material and inorganic products of weathering; it is the beginning of true mineral soil
what is the B horizon
AKA subsoil
is a dense layer of mostly fine material that has been pushed down from the topsoil
what is the C horizon
AKA soil base
is located just above bedrock and is made of parent, organic, and inorganic material
what are the factors affecting microbial abundance in soils (7)
moisture content
oxygen
pH
temp
nutrient availability
microbial populations present in the soil
microbes perform a number of functions
soil microbiology
what is more favorable for moisture content
moist soils support microbial growth and diversity better than dry soils
soil microbiology
how does oxygen factor in soil
oxygen dissolves poorly in water
moist soils are lower in oxygen than dry soils
anaerobes predominate in waterlogged soils
soil microbiology
what is the pH in soil
highly acidic and highly basic soils favor fungi
soil microbiology
how does temp affect soil
most soil organisms are mesophiles
live well in areas without extreme summer or winter
soil microbiology
how does nutrient availability affect soil
most soil microbes utilize organic matter
microbial community size determined by how much organic material is available
soil microbiology
how does microbial populations present in the soil affect it
bacteria are numerous and found in all soil layers
archaea present but are difficult to culture and study
fungi are also populous group of microorganisms
animal viruses are rarely found free in soil; bacteriophage are highly abundant in soil; bacteriophage are highly abundant in soil
algae live on or near the soil surface
most protozoa require oxygen and remain the topsoil
soil microbiology
how do microbes perform a number of functions
cycle elements and convert them to usable form
degrade dead organisms and their wastes
produce compounds with potential human uses
explain the carbon cycle
the primary biogeochemical cycle
carbon fixation- any process in which gasious carbon dioxide is converted into a solid organic compound
photosynthetic fixation—photoautotrophs
6CO2+6H20——->C6H12O6+6O2
light
how does the carbon cycle affect the atmosphere
the return of CO2 to the atmosphere by respiration closely balances its removal by fixation. however, the burning of fossil fuels adds more CO2 resulting in a steady increase
explain the nitrogen cycle
molecular nitrogen (N2) makes up almost 80%
for plants to assimilate and use nitrogen it must be fixed- taken up and combined into organic compounds
what is nitrogen fixation in lichens
symbiotic relationship between a fungus and: cyanobacteria and algae
how is seawater microbiota divided and what does it include
divides into zones based on light and O2 availability
includes abyssal zone dominated by archaea
what is phytoplankton and what are they composed of
microscopic photosynthetic organisms
mostly cyanobacteria and single cell aglae
form basis of oceanic food chain
how do microbes create water pollution
microbes are filtered from water that percolates into groundwater
some pathogens are transmitted to humans in drinking and recreational water
how do chemicals create water pollution
resistant chemicals may be concentrated in the aquatic food chain
mercury is metabolized by certain bacteria into a soluble compound, which is concentrated in animals
what is eutrophication and how does it affect the environment
eutrophication is excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water
overabundance of nutrients in lakes and streams
caused by addition of organic matter or inorganic matter like phosphates, nitrogen, which cause algal blooms
what is Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
bacterial decomposition of organic matter uses up O2 in water
BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed for aerobic biological organisms in a body of water to break down organic material present in a given water sample at certain temp over a specific time period
what do water purity tests do and what is MPN
indicate organisms
used to detect fecal contamination, coliforms, and enterococcus
MPN: most probable number/ 100 mL of water
what are coliforms
aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, gram -, non-endospore forming rods that ferment lactose to acid plus gas within 48 hours at 35 degrees Celsius
explain what the wastewater treatment oxidation ponds are for
for small communities
pond 1: settle solids, pump water to pond 2
pond 2: bacterial decomposition of dissolved organic matter in water
for municipal sewage treatment what is the primary, secondary, tertiary treatment
primary treatment: removal of solids, disinfection
secondary treatment: removal of much of the BOD, disinfection, water can be used for irrigation
tertiary treatment: removal of remaining BOD, N, and P, disinfection, water is drinkable.
what does secondary effluent contain
residual BOD
50% of the original nitrogen
70% of the original phosphorus
how does tertiary treatment remove the secondary effluent
filtration through sand and activated charcoal
chemical precipitation
what does the urinary system contain
two kidneys
two ureters
one urinary bladder
one urethra
how does urine transport
urine is transported from the kidneys through ureters to the urinary bladder and is eliminated through the urethra
how to prevent urinary infection
valves prevent backflow to urinary bladder and kidneys
acidity of urine
mechanical flushing
what does the female repro system consists of
two ovaries, two uterine tubes, the uterus, the cervix, the vagina, and the external genitals
what does the male repro system consist of
two testes, ducts, accessory glands, and the penis; seminal fluid leaves the male body through the urethra
true/ false
is the urinary bladder sterile under normal conditions?
false, recent studies have shown the urinary bladder has a specific (yet sensitive) microbiome
what is the normal microbiota of the vagina during the repro years
lactobacilli
produce H2O2. grow on glycogen secretions
true/ false
the male urethra is not considered sterile
true the male urethra is no longer considered normally sterile
what is the most commonly reported STI
chlamydia
the prevalence of genital herpes among 14-49 year olds in US in ________
1-6
what can cause UTIs
bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites
true/ false
UTI have become increasingly resistant to first line antibiotic therapy
true
where are lower UTIs occur
are men or women more likely to get them and why
urethra or bladder
most common in women than in men
because the female urethra is much shorter and provides less of a barrier to bacterial invasion
where are upper UTI occur
who is more likely to get a upper UTI men or women?
how do people get upper UTIs
involve kidneys (pyelonephritis), ureters (urethritis) or both
upper UTIs can occur in both men and women as a complication of a lower UTI
what is the common organism that causes upper UTI and what are the symptoms
symptoms of an upper UTI include fever, chills, lower back pain, nausea, and vomiting
the most common organism is e. coli
what is cystitis
an inflammation of the urinary bladder
what is urethritis
an inflammation of the urethra
what is pyelonephritis
an inflammation of one or both kidneys
in regards to cystitis what is the usual causative agent, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment
usual causative agents: e. coli, staphylococcus saprophyticus
symptoms: dysuria (difficult or painful urination), pyuria (pus in urine)
diagnosis: >1000 CFU/mL potential pathogens and a positive LE test
treatment: antibiotics
what causes pyelonephritis, what are the symptoms diagnosis and treatment
can result from lower UTI or from systematic bacterial infections
causative agent: usually e. coli
symptoms: fever, back or flank pain
diagnosis: 10^5 CFUs/mL and a positive LE test
treatment: antibiotics
true/ false
most diseases of the repro system are STI
true
how does a person prevent STI
use of condoms and are treated with antibiotics
what are signs and symptoms of chlamydia in males
causes inflammation of the urethra
symptoms mimic gonorrhea; discharge and painful urination
untreated infections may lead to epididymitis (inflammation of the tube that stores and carries sperm)
what are signs and symptoms of chlamydia in females
cervicitis
discharge
salpingitis (PID- pelvic inflammatory disorder which is inflammation of the fallopian tubes)
your doing great
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