Exam 3 Flashcards
What is an insight problem
A problem that we must look at from a different angle before we can see how to solve it. Insight occurs spontaneously and suddenly, and involves a perceptual restructuring of the situation.
In order to think productively, you need to go beyond having a little knowledge that you can misapply: you need to look at the situation with fresh eyes in order to recognize and apply the general principles that are relevant to it.
What is productive thinking
Thinking based on a grasp of the general principles that apply in the situation at hand.
What is structurally blind/reproductive thinking
The tendency to use familiar or routine procedures, reproducing thinking that was appropriate for other situations, but is not appropriate for the current situation.
What is functional fixedness
The inability to see beyond the most common use of a particular object and recognize that it could also perform the function needed to solve a problem; also, the tendency to think about objects based on the function for which they were designed.
(e.g. the study with using the box upside down as a stool or the nine-dot problem)
What is the feeling of warmth when it comes to problem solving
The feeling that many people have as they approach the solution to a problem (i.e., “getting warm”). This is usually seen in non-insight problems.
What is the feeling of knowing and explain it in the context of insight and non-insight problems.
The feeling that you will be able to solve a particular problem. For non-insight problems, participants were able to predict fairly accurately which ones they would be able to solve and which ones they would not. For insight problems, however, there was no such predictability.
These results are consistent with the hypothesis that participants are aware of the procedures they can use to solve non-insight problems, and therefore can predict which ones they will be able to solve, based on whether or not they possess the relevant knowledge. By contrast, insight problems are solved by the sudden emergence of knowledge that the participant was not aware of before attempting to solve the problem.
What is the progress monitoring theory
The theory that we monitor our progress on a problem, and when we reach an impasse we are open to an insightful solution.
What is the representational change theory
The theory that insight requires a change in the way participants represent the problem to themselves. They argued that insight requires a change in the way we represent the problem to ourselves. Their unique contribution was to hypothesize that achieving representational change depends on two processes: constraint relaxation and chunk decomposition
What is constraint relaxation
Constraint relaxation is the removal of whatever assumptions are blocking problem solution; for example, the assumption that lines may not extend outside the square area is a constraint that may prevent solution of the nine-dot problem.
What is chunk decomposition
Chunk decomposition means separating the problem into the “chunks” that belong together and thinking about them independently. As an example, highly skilled chess players who see familiar patterns in the arrangement of chess pieces on the board but can decompose these patterns into smaller chunks when necessary.
Constraint relaxation and chunk decomposition are part of which theory
Representational change theory
How do progress monitoring and representational change theories work together
The former focuses on the process by which reaching an impasse forces the participant to seek an insightful solution, while the latter focuses on the process that makes it possible to reach an insightful solution. In other words, the two theories address different parts of the problem-solving process and therefore should be seen as complementary
Which part of the brain is likely involved in the insight process
anterior cingulate cortex: involved in detecting the conflict between the way we have been thinking about the problem and the correct way to solve it.
hyppocampus: involved in the consolidation of memories and can help with future insight as responding to the ‘insightful’ experiences and fixing them in long-term memory can greatly enhance the possibility of an animal’s survival.
Suggests hippocampal involvement in the process of solving insight problems. That is, the restructuring process that occurs as a result of sleep may be similar to memory consolidation during sleep, “resulting in delayed learning without the need for further practice or task engagement” (wake-day/wake-night/sleep study)
Around what age did children start to have difficulty seeing other use for an object (functional fixedness)
Around 6. By contrast, children who are five or younger see the function of an object as determined by the goal of the user rather than that of the designer.
What is the Einstellung effect
The tendency to respond inflexibly to a particular type of problem; also called a rigid set.
What is negative transfer
The tendency to respond with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate.
What are strong but wrong routines
Overlearned response sequences that we follow even when we intend to do something else.
How is willpower related to self-control and demanding tasks
John Tierney develop the idea that certain demanding tasks can deplete the reserves of willpower that are needed for exercising self-control. They also review recent studies showing that, conversely, performance on demanding tasks can be impaired when the resources needed for self-control are depleted. Evidence suggests that it could be the amount of glucose available to fuel successful brain function
How is language involved in mindfulness/mindlessness
For half the participants, the objects were described unconditionally as one thing only, as in, “This is a dog’s chew toy.” For the other half of the participants, the objects were described conditionally, as in, “This could be a dog’s chew toy.” The experimenter then pretended to need an eraser and asked participants what to do. A mindful response would have been to suggest that the chew toy could be used as an eraser. If the chew toy had been described conditionally, then participants were much more likely to make the mindful response than when it had been described unconditionally.
How is language involved in mindfulness/mindlessness
For half the participants, the objects were described unconditionally as one thing only, as in, “This is a dog’s chew toy.” For the other half of the participants, the objects were described conditionally, as in, “This could be a dog’s chew toy.” The experimenter then pretended to need an eraser and asked participants what to do. A mindful response would have been to suggest that the chew toy could be used as an eraser. If the chew toy had been described conditionally, then participants were much more likely to make the mindful response than when it had been described unconditionally.
Explain mindfulness vs mindlessness
Openness to alternative possibilities versus the tendency to behave as if the situation had only one possible interpretation.
What is a heuristic
A problem-solving procedure (typically a rule of thumb or shortcut); heuristics can often be useful, but do not guarantee solutions.
What are the steps of evaluation function
The process whereby a plan is created, carried out, and evaluated.
What is a problem space
The representation of a problem, including the goal to be reached and the various ways of transforming the given situation into the solution. May use a search tree that represents all the possible moves branching out from the initial state of the problem.
In AI, what is a general problem solver
A computer program used to perform non-systematic searches.
In gestalt ways of thinking about problems, Wertheimer argued there was two ways of looking at problems:
- Productive Thinking: Thinking based on a grasp of the general principles that apply to the situation at hand
- Structurally Blind Thinking: The tendency to reproduce thinking appropriate for other situations but not the one at hand
What are the differences between Artificial Narrow Intelligence and Artificial General Intelligence
- Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI), also known as Weak AI or Narrow AI, refers to a type of artificial intelligence that is designed to perform a specific task or set of tasks.
- Unlike Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), which aims to replicate human-like intelligence and reasoning across a wide range of domains, ANI systems are focused on excelling at a particular task or set of tasks
Name four examples of Artificial Narrow Intelligence
- Speech recognition: These recognize and transcribe human speech, including Siri, Alexa, Google Assistant
- Image recognition: These recognize and classify images, including facial recognition systems and object recognition systems
- Recommendation engines: These provide personalized recommendations to users, including Netflix’s movie suggestions
- Language translation: These translate text from one language to another, including Google Translate and Microsoft Translator
Name four issues with Artificial Narrow Intelligence
- Data availability: They rely on large amounts of high-quality data
- Algorithmic bias: They can exhibit bias if the data is biased
- Explainability: It can be difficult to understand how ANI systems make their decisions, particularly for complex systems
- Adaptability: They are designed to perform specific tasks, and may not be able to adapt to new or changing situations
Name five issues with Artificial General Intelligence
- How to define and measure intelligence in a general way
- How to ensure AGI systems are aligned with human values
- How to model and simulate human cognition, emotions, and consciousness
- How to enable AGI systems to interact with humans and other agents in a natural and cooperative way
- How to balance the trade-offs between generality and efficiency, exploration and exploitation, and learning and reasoning in AGI systems
How can the study of AI inform our understanding of how humans think, learn, and communicate?
Artificial intelligence can teach us about human cognition by revealing the limitations and biases of human thinking, such as heuristics, fallacies, errors and illusions
Artificial intelligence can teach us about human cognition by inspiring new questions and hypotheses about the nature and origin of intelligence, such as the role of evolution, culture, emotion and consciousness
What is a major limitation of AI to become human-like?
As long as computers do not directly interact with the world, they cannot achieve human intelligence
What is the Zeigarnik effect
The textbook (wrongly) describes this as a quasi-need to finish tasks
The Zeigarnik effect states that people can remember the details of unfinished tasks better than those of finished tasks
E.g.
Study in more than one session, interrupting them with unrelated work or
For a class with midterms and a cumulative exam, it’s best not to breathe too big a sigh of relief after the midterms – keep the task open!
How can AI be superior than humans in scientific problem solving
One of our biggest limitations is how we generally treat unexpected findings.
Our natural tendency is to resist, and ignore, information that disconfirms our pre-existing hypotheses
At least an AI probably doesn’t have pre-existing hypotheses (unless it learns them from us)
The scientific method recognizes this limitation and requires us to instead adapt our hypotheses
What is the in vivo/in vitro method in studying problem-solving in science
In the case of scientific problem-solving, in vivo research involves the observation of ongoing scientific investigations, while in vitro research involves laboratory studies
of scientific problem solving.
What is distributed reasoning
Reasoning done by more than one person (e.g. weekly team meetings). Distributed reasoning is particularly effective in changing problem representations because different people reach different conclusions
What is motivated reasoning
Biased evaluation of evidence, in accordance with one’s prior views and beliefs.
Recall from Chapter 10 that we often will ignore information that disconfirms our pre-existing hypotheses. A strongly related issue, motivated reasoning is different from simply ignoring information. It’s choosing to evaluate information in a way that is consistent with our beliefs.
People are more likely to read the conclusion first. If they disagree with the conclusion, they try to find a flaw in the premises
What is a syllogism
A syllogism consists of two premises and a conclusion. Each of the premises specifies a relationship between two categories
Describe all four forms of syllogistic reasonings
- Universal affirmative: All A are B.
All cows are animals.
All right angles are 90-degree angles. - Universal negative: No A are B.
No tomatoes are animals.
No acute angles are 90-degree angles. - Particular affirmative: Some A are B.
Some animals are dangerous.
Some pigeons are clever. - Particular negative: Some A are not B.
Some animals are not cows.
Some pigeons are not clever.
What is logicism
The belief that logical reasoning is an essential part of human nature.
What is practical syllogism
One in which two premises point to a conclusion that calls for action.
Premise 1: I need to understand psychology as a whole.
Premise 2: The only way to understand psychology as a whole is through the study of cognition.
Conclusion: Therefore I need to study cognition.
What is the effect of (validity, believability) content on syllogistic reasoning
People often find it difficult to separate the validity of a syllogism from the issue of whether the syllogism is consistent with their experience or beliefs. Thus they may accept an invalid syllogism if they believe that the conclusion is true in the real world. However, the effect of believability is greater if the syllogism is invalid.
Believable but invalid syllogisms were accepted as valid by 71 per cent of participants, while unbelievable and invalid syllogisms were accepted by only 10 per cent.
How do people look at unbelievable vs believable syllogism
If it’s unbelievable, they then try to find some flaw in the premises that renders the conclusion invalid. However, if the conclusion is believable, they don’t try to establish that the syllogism is invalid: instead, they try to find some way of thinking about the premises that renders the conclusion valid. In other words, they set themselves the goal of discovering a syllogism to be invalid only if the conclusion is unbelievable.
What is relational reasoning
Reasoning involving premises that express the relations between items (e.g., A is taller than B). Also known are transitive relations.
What is the three-term series problem
Linear syllogisms consisting of two comparative sentences from which a conclusion must be drawn
Describe the iconic nature of mental models
the relations between the parts of the model correspond to the relations between the parts of the situation it represents. It also shows that you can get more out of a mental model than you put into it.
What is the principle of emergent consequences
Once you have constructed a mental model, you can see relationships that were not evident before you constructed it.
What is recursion
A process that refers to itself is called recursive. Recursion can have interesting effects on reasoning. The first thing to recognize about recursion is that it can sometimes lead to awkward forms of thought. The most famous example is the liar paradox :
There is a very old story about Epimenides the Cretan, who is supposed to have said that All Cretans are liars. Because Epimenides is a Cretan, he is including himself when he says that All Cretans are liars.
