Exam 3 Flashcards
What is an insight problem
A problem that we must look at from a different angle before we can see how to solve it. Insight occurs spontaneously and suddenly, and involves a perceptual restructuring of the situation.
In order to think productively, you need to go beyond having a little knowledge that you can misapply: you need to look at the situation with fresh eyes in order to recognize and apply the general principles that are relevant to it.
What is productive thinking
Thinking based on a grasp of the general principles that apply in the situation at hand.
What is structurally blind/reproductive thinking
The tendency to use familiar or routine procedures, reproducing thinking that was appropriate for other situations, but is not appropriate for the current situation.
What is functional fixedness
The inability to see beyond the most common use of a particular object and recognize that it could also perform the function needed to solve a problem; also, the tendency to think about objects based on the function for which they were designed.
(e.g. the study with using the box upside down as a stool or the nine-dot problem)
What is the feeling of warmth when it comes to problem solving
The feeling that many people have as they approach the solution to a problem (i.e., “getting warm”). This is usually seen in non-insight problems.
What is the feeling of knowing and explain it in the context of insight and non-insight problems.
The feeling that you will be able to solve a particular problem. For non-insight problems, participants were able to predict fairly accurately which ones they would be able to solve and which ones they would not. For insight problems, however, there was no such predictability.
These results are consistent with the hypothesis that participants are aware of the procedures they can use to solve non-insight problems, and therefore can predict which ones they will be able to solve, based on whether or not they possess the relevant knowledge. By contrast, insight problems are solved by the sudden emergence of knowledge that the participant was not aware of before attempting to solve the problem.
What is the progress monitoring theory
The theory that we monitor our progress on a problem, and when we reach an impasse we are open to an insightful solution.
What is the representational change theory
The theory that insight requires a change in the way participants represent the problem to themselves. They argued that insight requires a change in the way we represent the problem to ourselves. Their unique contribution was to hypothesize that achieving representational change depends on two processes: constraint relaxation and chunk decomposition
What is constraint relaxation
Constraint relaxation is the removal of whatever assumptions are blocking problem solution; for example, the assumption that lines may not extend outside the square area is a constraint that may prevent solution of the nine-dot problem.
What is chunk decomposition
Chunk decomposition means separating the problem into the “chunks” that belong together and thinking about them independently. As an example, highly skilled chess players who see familiar patterns in the arrangement of chess pieces on the board but can decompose these patterns into smaller chunks when necessary.
Constraint relaxation and chunk decomposition are part of which theory
Representational change theory
How do progress monitoring and representational change theories work together
The former focuses on the process by which reaching an impasse forces the participant to seek an insightful solution, while the latter focuses on the process that makes it possible to reach an insightful solution. In other words, the two theories address different parts of the problem-solving process and therefore should be seen as complementary
Which part of the brain is likely involved in the insight process
anterior cingulate cortex: involved in detecting the conflict between the way we have been thinking about the problem and the correct way to solve it.
hyppocampus: involved in the consolidation of memories and can help with future insight as responding to the ‘insightful’ experiences and fixing them in long-term memory can greatly enhance the possibility of an animal’s survival.
Suggests hippocampal involvement in the process of solving insight problems. That is, the restructuring process that occurs as a result of sleep may be similar to memory consolidation during sleep, “resulting in delayed learning without the need for further practice or task engagement” (wake-day/wake-night/sleep study)
Around what age did children start to have difficulty seeing other use for an object (functional fixedness)
Around 6. By contrast, children who are five or younger see the function of an object as determined by the goal of the user rather than that of the designer.
What is the Einstellung effect
The tendency to respond inflexibly to a particular type of problem; also called a rigid set.
What is negative transfer
The tendency to respond with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate.
What are strong but wrong routines
Overlearned response sequences that we follow even when we intend to do something else.
How is willpower related to self-control and demanding tasks
John Tierney develop the idea that certain demanding tasks can deplete the reserves of willpower that are needed for exercising self-control. They also review recent studies showing that, conversely, performance on demanding tasks can be impaired when the resources needed for self-control are depleted. Evidence suggests that it could be the amount of glucose available to fuel successful brain function
How is language involved in mindfulness/mindlessness
For half the participants, the objects were described unconditionally as one thing only, as in, “This is a dog’s chew toy.” For the other half of the participants, the objects were described conditionally, as in, “This could be a dog’s chew toy.” The experimenter then pretended to need an eraser and asked participants what to do. A mindful response would have been to suggest that the chew toy could be used as an eraser. If the chew toy had been described conditionally, then participants were much more likely to make the mindful response than when it had been described unconditionally.
How is language involved in mindfulness/mindlessness
For half the participants, the objects were described unconditionally as one thing only, as in, “This is a dog’s chew toy.” For the other half of the participants, the objects were described conditionally, as in, “This could be a dog’s chew toy.” The experimenter then pretended to need an eraser and asked participants what to do. A mindful response would have been to suggest that the chew toy could be used as an eraser. If the chew toy had been described conditionally, then participants were much more likely to make the mindful response than when it had been described unconditionally.
Explain mindfulness vs mindlessness
Openness to alternative possibilities versus the tendency to behave as if the situation had only one possible interpretation.
What is a heuristic
A problem-solving procedure (typically a rule of thumb or shortcut); heuristics can often be useful, but do not guarantee solutions.
What are the steps of evaluation function
The process whereby a plan is created, carried out, and evaluated.
What is a problem space
The representation of a problem, including the goal to be reached and the various ways of transforming the given situation into the solution. May use a search tree that represents all the possible moves branching out from the initial state of the problem.
In AI, what is a general problem solver
A computer program used to perform non-systematic searches.
In gestalt ways of thinking about problems, Wertheimer argued there was two ways of looking at problems:
- Productive Thinking: Thinking based on a grasp of the general principles that apply to the situation at hand
- Structurally Blind Thinking: The tendency to reproduce thinking appropriate for other situations but not the one at hand
What are the differences between Artificial Narrow Intelligence and Artificial General Intelligence
- Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI), also known as Weak AI or Narrow AI, refers to a type of artificial intelligence that is designed to perform a specific task or set of tasks.
- Unlike Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), which aims to replicate human-like intelligence and reasoning across a wide range of domains, ANI systems are focused on excelling at a particular task or set of tasks
Name four examples of Artificial Narrow Intelligence
- Speech recognition: These recognize and transcribe human speech, including Siri, Alexa, Google Assistant
- Image recognition: These recognize and classify images, including facial recognition systems and object recognition systems
- Recommendation engines: These provide personalized recommendations to users, including Netflix’s movie suggestions
- Language translation: These translate text from one language to another, including Google Translate and Microsoft Translator
Name four issues with Artificial Narrow Intelligence
- Data availability: They rely on large amounts of high-quality data
- Algorithmic bias: They can exhibit bias if the data is biased
- Explainability: It can be difficult to understand how ANI systems make their decisions, particularly for complex systems
- Adaptability: They are designed to perform specific tasks, and may not be able to adapt to new or changing situations
Name five issues with Artificial General Intelligence
- How to define and measure intelligence in a general way
- How to ensure AGI systems are aligned with human values
- How to model and simulate human cognition, emotions, and consciousness
- How to enable AGI systems to interact with humans and other agents in a natural and cooperative way
- How to balance the trade-offs between generality and efficiency, exploration and exploitation, and learning and reasoning in AGI systems
How can the study of AI inform our understanding of how humans think, learn, and communicate?
Artificial intelligence can teach us about human cognition by revealing the limitations and biases of human thinking, such as heuristics, fallacies, errors and illusions
Artificial intelligence can teach us about human cognition by inspiring new questions and hypotheses about the nature and origin of intelligence, such as the role of evolution, culture, emotion and consciousness
What is a major limitation of AI to become human-like?
As long as computers do not directly interact with the world, they cannot achieve human intelligence
What is the Zeigarnik effect
The textbook (wrongly) describes this as a quasi-need to finish tasks
The Zeigarnik effect states that people can remember the details of unfinished tasks better than those of finished tasks
E.g.
Study in more than one session, interrupting them with unrelated work or
For a class with midterms and a cumulative exam, it’s best not to breathe too big a sigh of relief after the midterms – keep the task open!
How can AI be superior than humans in scientific problem solving
One of our biggest limitations is how we generally treat unexpected findings.
Our natural tendency is to resist, and ignore, information that disconfirms our pre-existing hypotheses
At least an AI probably doesn’t have pre-existing hypotheses (unless it learns them from us)
The scientific method recognizes this limitation and requires us to instead adapt our hypotheses
What is the in vivo/in vitro method in studying problem-solving in science
In the case of scientific problem-solving, in vivo research involves the observation of ongoing scientific investigations, while in vitro research involves laboratory studies
of scientific problem solving.
What is distributed reasoning
Reasoning done by more than one person (e.g. weekly team meetings). Distributed reasoning is particularly effective in changing problem representations because different people reach different conclusions
What is motivated reasoning
Biased evaluation of evidence, in accordance with one’s prior views and beliefs.
Recall from Chapter 10 that we often will ignore information that disconfirms our pre-existing hypotheses. A strongly related issue, motivated reasoning is different from simply ignoring information. It’s choosing to evaluate information in a way that is consistent with our beliefs.
People are more likely to read the conclusion first. If they disagree with the conclusion, they try to find a flaw in the premises
What is a syllogism
A syllogism consists of two premises and a conclusion. Each of the premises specifies a relationship between two categories
Describe all four forms of syllogistic reasonings
- Universal affirmative: All A are B.
All cows are animals.
All right angles are 90-degree angles. - Universal negative: No A are B.
No tomatoes are animals.
No acute angles are 90-degree angles. - Particular affirmative: Some A are B.
Some animals are dangerous.
Some pigeons are clever. - Particular negative: Some A are not B.
Some animals are not cows.
Some pigeons are not clever.
What is logicism
The belief that logical reasoning is an essential part of human nature.
What is practical syllogism
One in which two premises point to a conclusion that calls for action.
Premise 1: I need to understand psychology as a whole.
Premise 2: The only way to understand psychology as a whole is through the study of cognition.
Conclusion: Therefore I need to study cognition.
What is the effect of (validity, believability) content on syllogistic reasoning
People often find it difficult to separate the validity of a syllogism from the issue of whether the syllogism is consistent with their experience or beliefs. Thus they may accept an invalid syllogism if they believe that the conclusion is true in the real world. However, the effect of believability is greater if the syllogism is invalid.
Believable but invalid syllogisms were accepted as valid by 71 per cent of participants, while unbelievable and invalid syllogisms were accepted by only 10 per cent.
How do people look at unbelievable vs believable syllogism
If it’s unbelievable, they then try to find some flaw in the premises that renders the conclusion invalid. However, if the conclusion is believable, they don’t try to establish that the syllogism is invalid: instead, they try to find some way of thinking about the premises that renders the conclusion valid. In other words, they set themselves the goal of discovering a syllogism to be invalid only if the conclusion is unbelievable.
What is relational reasoning
Reasoning involving premises that express the relations between items (e.g., A is taller than B). Also known are transitive relations.
What is the three-term series problem
Linear syllogisms consisting of two comparative sentences from which a conclusion must be drawn
Describe the iconic nature of mental models
the relations between the parts of the model correspond to the relations between the parts of the situation it represents. It also shows that you can get more out of a mental model than you put into it.
What is the principle of emergent consequences
Once you have constructed a mental model, you can see relationships that were not evident before you constructed it.
What is recursion
A process that refers to itself is called recursive. Recursion can have interesting effects on reasoning. The first thing to recognize about recursion is that it can sometimes lead to awkward forms of thought. The most famous example is the liar paradox :
There is a very old story about Epimenides the Cretan, who is supposed to have said that All Cretans are liars. Because Epimenides is a Cretan, he is including himself when he says that All Cretans are liars.
What is the natural deduction system
A natural deduction system makes use of propositions stored in working memory. Propositions are statements structured around connectives such as if . . . then, and, or, and not. The system uses deduction rules to draw conclusions from these propositions.
What’s a generative problem
Participants are told that the three numbers 2, 4, 6 conform to a simple relational rule that the experimenter has in mind, and that their task is to discover the rule by generating sequences of three numbers. The experimenter tells them each time whether the rule has been followed.
What is the eliminative strategy
A strategy based on attempting to falsify your hypotheses, in order to eliminate incorrect beliefs.
What is a truth table
A way of presenting the various combinations of the constituents of logical statements.
p q If p then q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Contrast single logical system and adaptive reasoning
There is little evidence to support the hypothesis that people reason in accordance with the rules of a single logical system. If we did use a single system, our reasoning processes should not be affected by the content of the problem.
What constitutes adaptive reasoning may differ from one type of problem to another. Consequently, different types of problem may require the use of different, domain-specific inference procedures.
What is the social contract theory
The theory that inference procedures have evolved to deal with social contracts in which people give something up in order to gain something else.
What is the difference between a heuristic and a bias
A heuristic, as we noted in Chapter 10, is a rule of thumb or shortcut that works in some situations but can mislead us in others, while a bias is a predisposition to see a particular type of situation in a particular way.
What is the law of large numbers
The larger the sample size the closer the statistic will be to the true value of the population
How do we construct mental models
To adequately assess a conclusion, we need to consider all possible interpretations of the premises and conclusions. But people don’t always work out all models (e.g. mental model of the word ‘some’)
Name 5 cognitive bias
Anchoring
Illusory Correlations
Availability
Law of Averages
Gambler’s Fallacy
What is anchoring
Anchoring is when the first value someone is exposed to biases the decision that we would make about subsequent values. This is most easily seen numerically, but ‘value’ does not necessarily mean numbers.
Consider the two calculations below. Without doing the math, which produces the larger number?
8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1
1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8
Research showed the first was estimated at 2250 on average, while the second was only 512 (both are way off)
What are illusory correlations
The mistaken belief that events go together when in fact they do not.
Findings correlations to confirm our hypothesis instead of looking at all available correlations to draw proper conclusions (relationship between symptoms and disease)
What is the availability bias and give examples
The belief that an answer which comes to mind easily is more likely to be correct. Retrospective decision making is based on our incomplete memory. We confuse the frequency with which we can remember something with how frequently it actually occurs
Peak-end rule: Retrospective judgments of the total painfulness of an event are formed by averaging the pain experienced during the most painful moment of the event and that felt at the end of the event.
Duration neglect: The finding that retrospective judgments of the total painfulness of an event are unrelated to the event’s duration.
What is the law of averages
The incorrect belief that events of one kind are always balanced by events of another kind .
Which bias is the result of the law of averages
The gambler’s fallacy is the belief that when some event doesn’t occur, this increases the probability of it occurring. This is a fallacy specifically in the context of independent trials
Whenever there is no dependency in the probability of the outcomes, the probability will not increase. If there actually is a dependency, e.g., from a biased coin, then the probability would indeed increase (potentially by a small amount)
“Due to win” when you haven’t won in a long time
What is the representativeness heuristic
The representativeness heuristic is the belief that a sample of data “looks right”, given our (incorrect) expectations for randomness.
This is responsible for a lot of logical errors, even on important tests
Given a properly balanced coin, tossed 10 times, which outcome is more likely?
HHHHHHHHHH
HHTHTTHTHT
None, they are as likely
What is the law of small numbers
The mistaken belief that a small sample should be representative of the population from which it is drawn.
May lead to representativeness heuristic
What is the recognition heuristic
When choosing between two objects (according to some criterion), if one is recognized and the other is not, then select the former.
What is ecological rationality
A heuristic is ecologically rational if it produces useful inferences by exploiting the structure of information in the environment.
What is the less-is-more effect
Sometimes the person who knows less is able to make a better judgment than the person who knows more but is unable to use that knowledge in the situation at hand.
What is anoetic consciousness
For example, procedural memory can be described as anoetic (non-knowing) because it does not go beyond itself; it stays in the here and now.
What is noetic consciousness
By contrast, semantic memory is noetic (knowing) because when we use it we are aware not only of our immediate surroundings, but also of things that lie beyond it.
What is autonetic consciousness
Finally, episodic memory is autonoetic (self-knowing) because it involves remembering personal experiences.
What is prefrontal leucotomy
A surgical procedure, now abandoned, in which the connections between the prefrontal lobes and other parts of the brain were severed; also known as prefrontal lobotomy.
One goal of the procedure was to calm patients who ruminated excessively about them
selves and their problems:
What is chronoesthesia
He has called our sense of subjective time chronesthesia, and considers it a cognitive capacity as important in its own way as the capacity to see or hear.
Describe being “non-conscious”
The level of consciousness that operates without our attention, continuously monitoring and changing the contents of thought, and tracking and changing behaviour to address goals.
Describe being “conscious”
The basic level of awareness.
Describe being “meta-conscious”
The level of consciousness at play when you direct your attention to your own state of mind.
Describe encoding
The process of transforming information into one or more forms of representation is known as encoding.
What is multidimensional encoding
Thus a single word might be encoded in terms of multiple dimensions: frequency of occurrence, how we feel about it, as well as its physical characteristics, such as its length and sound. This process is called multidimensional encoding.
What is a limen and subliminal perception
Limen: A threshold
Subliminal perception (or unconscious perception) : Perception without awareness; occurs when the stimulus is too weak to be consciously recognized, but still has an impact on your behaviour.
What is backward masking
Backward masking involves presenting a stimulus, called the target, to the participant and then covering, or masking, the target with another stimulus
Because the mask is the last stimulus presented, subsequent feedback and feedforward processing brings the mask into consciousness. The end result is conscious experience of the mask and failure to consciously perceive the initial stimulus. However, the initial feedforward sweep did carry information about the stimulus to the inferior temporal cortex, creating the opportunity for perception without awareness
What are direct vs indirect measures of cognitive processes
To determine whether or not a stimulus has affected cognitive processes, then, it might not be necessary to rely on direct measures of cognitive processes, such as participants’ verbal reports that they have not seen the stimulus; indirect measures of perceptual processes could be used instead (i.e. the effects of an undetected stimulus on a subsequent task)
What is the dissociation paradigm
An experimental strategy designed to show that it is possible to perceive stimuli in the absence of any conscious awareness of them.
What are the objective and subjective thresholds
The point at which participants can detect a stimulus at a chance level versus the point at which they say they did not perceive it.
What is the process dissociation procedure
An experimental technique that requires participants not to respond with items they have observed previously
What is implicit perception
The effect on a person’s experience, thought, or action of an object in the current stimulus environment in the absence of, or independent of, conscious perception of that event.
What is change blindness
Failure to consciously detect an obvious change in a scene. One of the main points raised by change blindness is that our internal representation of the world is not as rich as we think.
What is the grand illusion of conscious perception
The illusion that what we see in our visual field is a clear and detailed picture of the world.
What is the retinal blur
The blurring of information on the retina that occurs during fast eye movements.
What is saccadic suppression
The halting of visual processing during an eye movement
What is blink suppression
The halting of visual processing during an eye blink.
What is the perceptual completion (or filling-in)
The incorrect impression that a stimulus occupies a section of the visual scene when in fact it occupies only the region around it.
What is meta-consciousness
Conscious awareness of what is occurring in one’s consciousness.
Describe the self-caught method and the probe-caught method in mind wandering
self-caught method
A technique used to catch episodes of mind-wandering in which participants are asked to monitor their consciousness and report anytime their mind has wandered.
probe-caught method
A technique used to catch episodes of mind wandering by presenting participants with a probe asking them whether they were mind-wandering just before the probe was presented.
Even though participants were consciously trying to monitor their mental activity, the probes still caught a substantial number of mind-wandering episodes. This indicated that meta-consciousness was suspended at times, allowing consciousness to drift to task-unrelated thoughts without the participants’ noticing it.
What is experience sampling
The general technique of asking people to comment on the contents of their consciousness at specific moments.
What is temporal dissociation
The temporary disengagement of meta consciousness, resulting in lack of awareness of the contents of consciousness. It’s even possible that they are the norm and meta-consciousness is the exception
Describe electroculogram (EOG) and electromygram (EMG)
electrooculogram (EOG)
A record of the changes in electrical potentials generated by the movements of the eye.
electromyogram (EMG)
A record of the changes in muscle activity of the body.
What are the easy and hard problems of consciousness
According to Chalmers (1995), the easy problems of consciousness are those that can be answered using the standard methods of cognitive neuroscience: for example, which brain areas are active when one is conscious of a visual object.
By contrast, the hard problems of consciousness involve understanding the specific subjective qualities of an individual’s consciousness.
What is binocular rivalry
When a different image is presented to each eye, the viewer becomes conscious of only one of the images at a time.
What is panpsychism
Chalmers now postulates that material processes in the brain cannot explain consciousness because consciousness is a fundamental property of matter itself. In fact, he has suggested that all matter has some form of consciousness: this view is called panpsychism.
What is flash suppression
When different images are presented to each eye and one of the images is replaced, the new image enters consciousness and the image presented to the other eye is suppressed from consciousness.
What is the theory of microconsciousness
The view that each individual has “many different visual consciousnesses that are distributed over space and time.”
In Chapter 3 we saw that different areas along the visual pathways are responsible for different aspects of visual perception. For instance, if an area known as vision area 4 (V4) is damaged, then colour perception will be compromised. According to Zeki (2009), the various areas involved in visual perception are responsible for distinct microconsciousnesses, which combine to give us the sense of a single unified consciousness.
What are gamma frequency
Spikes in the electroencephalogram that occur at roughly 40 cycles per second
What do split brain experiments show us
These findings indicate that neither hemisphere is conscious of the meaning of the word presented to the other hemisphere. Rather, each hemisphere is drawing an image of its word and integrating them on the same piece of paper. The only thing that is shared is control of the drawing hand
Why do phantom limbs occur
Phantom limbs occur as a consequence of the way the body schema represents the parts of our bodies and their relationships.
How does William James define consciousness
It’s a selecting agency that chooses one thing from many others
The chosen information is emphasized and accentuated, while others are suppressed
How would behaviourists look at consciousness
When the behaviourists were in control of the field, they would have described consciousness something like this (paraphrased)
Consciousness? No such thing
If there is consciousness, it’s irrelevant (epiphenomenal) for understanding behaviour, so stop worrying about it
What are more recent views on consciousness
The most recent perspective rejects both James’ view and that of the behaviourists
Consciousness is an awareness of our environment, ourselves, and the operations of our own minds - whether it’s memories, smells, thoughts, or bodily sensations
In his book Mind and Body, Mandler (1975) proposed an interesting model of consciousness where it is useful and even necessary for the proper functioning of several basic cognitive processes
What are three features of Mandler’s view on consciousness
It’s a complex and dynamic system of mental processes that interact with each other and with the environment, involving three main components (and, of course, attention)
- Perception: largely automatic, conscious if surprising or ambiguous
- Memory: Schemas are used to guide perception and action, and work with emotional evaluation to determine importance
- Emotional Evaluation: Comparison of current state with schema expectations
Name three ways consciousness is useful
Aside from just enjoying the awareness of our own existence, Mandler suggested three main functions for consciousness
- Learning: Consciousness enhances learning and is often necessary for speeding up the development of new skills
- Making Judgments: Using Kahneman’s System 2 to consider alternatives
- Troubleshooting: Handling unexpected situations that violate well-learned routines (Kahneman’s System 1 decisions)
Name one type of failure of consciousness
Change blindness illustrates how easy it is to create a breakdown in the overall system of conscious information processing
Change Blindness: is the inability to detect changes to the object(s) of a scene
It is easy to reproduce, you just need to have a brief interruption to the perceptual processing of the scene (a few hundred ms is sufficient)
What is mindsight
Getting a sense that something is changing, people are aware that there is something going on without being able to pinpoint it
According to Tulving, which level of consciousness is highest
Autonoetic consciousness representing the highest form and anoetic is lowest
How do we get most of our depth perception
Gap between the eyes
They never perceive the exact same information due to the separation of the eyes in space, and that’s how we get most of our depth perception
When we look at faces, which part of our brain is activated
FFA: Fusiform Face Area
When we look at places/things, which part of our brain is activated
Parahippocampal Place Area
How is binocular rivalry related to PPA & FFA
When experiencing binocular rivalry, they showed a switch in the relative strength of activity in these two areas, corresponding to the time of the conscious alternation
Which movement is often present in patients with locked-in syndrome
Damage to the brainstem, typically via TBI or stroke, can make it impossible for you to make any voluntary movement
Eye movements are the only behaviour typically spared, as they are connected above the brainstem, but not always
Higher order brain functions are relatively intact
What ratio of patients in vegetative states are actually conscious
At least 1 in 5, or 20%
What is an alternative explanation for patients who fail to answer instructions such as “Think about playing tennis”
Severe head trauma is very likely involved, so what if they are experiencing anterograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia would mean that the patient also does not remember how to play tennis, thus cannot engage in the prompt. It does not necessarily mean they are not conscious
What is flash suppression
When different images are presented to each eye and one of the images is replaced, the new image enters consciousness and the image presented to the other eye is suppressed from consciousness.
