Exam 2 COPY Flashcards

Question

Why are smells so tied to memories

Answer 1

It turns out that once a particular connection has been established between neuronal units in the epithelium and the hippocampus, it remains in place even as new olfactory neurons are generated to replace those that have died.

Answer 2

A memory system containing very specific representations of events that is hypothesized to be responsible for priming effects.

Answer 3

The episodic memory system operates with a deeper understanding of information, whereas the deals with information on a more superficial level PRS

Answer 4

Priming is the unconscious process through which our response to a given stimulus is facilitated by previous exposure to a related (or identical) stimulus, making our response both quicker and more accurate than it would otherwise be

Answer 5

The memory system concerned with knowing how to do things. Physical skills are not the only ones stored in procedural memory: so are many cognitive skills, including the ability to read

Answer 6

Knowing how to do something without being able to say exactly what it is that you know.

Answer 7

Episodic memory, around 4-6 years old

Answer 8

The feeling of knowing a person without being able to remember the circumstances of any previous meeting or anything else about him or her. (episodic memory)

Answer 9

Knowing that you know something without quite being able to recall it. (semantic memory)

Answer 10

Spreading activation was proposed by Quillian (1969) and elaborated by Collins and Loftus (1975). The idea is that when you search a semantic network, you activate the paths where the search takes place. This activation spreads from the node at which the search begins.

Answer 11

An involuntary semantic memory occurs whenever a semantic memory (e.g., a tune) pops into your mind without any episodic context. That is, you don’t recall any autobiographical information that might have triggered the semantic memory; it just pops up by itself and appears to be irrelevant to what you are currently thinking about. Kvavilashvili and Mandler (2004) call this mind popping.

Answer 12

Episodic memory

Answer 13

The hypothesis that older adults have a deficiency in creating and retrieving links between single units of information. Thus the problem was not so much that older people don’t recognize names or faces as it was that they don’t bind them together as easily as younger people do. Older adults have trouble in situations requiring the “merging of different aspects of an episode into a cohesive unit”

Answer 14

Mitchell and Bruss (2003) confirmed that older adults do seem to be able to form implicit memories just as easily as younger people. They also respond to priming just as readily as younger people. Implicit memory appears to be stable across age.

Answer 15

A form of amnesia affecting the ability to form new memories, attributed to thiamine deficiency and often (though not exclusively) seen in chronic alcoholics.

Answer 16

They may be able to acquire new information and yet not be aware that learning has taken place. It’s as if there are at least two memory systems (Tulving, 1985) that normally interact but have become disconnected.

Answer 17

amnesic patients do poorly on tasks requiring explicit memory, but much better on those requiring implicit memory. People with amnesia may be able to form associations, and thus learn new material. However, this learning would be available to them only in implicit, not explicit, form.

Answer 18

The disease is progressive, beginning with a deterioration of episodic memory. A decline in the ability to retain recently acquired information is characteristic of the early stages As the disease progresses, Alzheimer’s patients will show impaired semantic memory This suggests that what Alzheimer’s disease involves is not so much the inability to retrieve existing knowledge as the deterioration of knowledge that once existed.

Answer 19

The intention to remember to do something at some future time.

Answer 20

Sheer repetition makes a difference, and it’s important that the teacher help the patient avoid errors. Errorless learning is widely believed to maximize patients’ ability to use whatever memory resources they still have

Answer 21

A model of memory based on a toy writing tablet that retains fragments of old messages even after they have been “erased.” In time, these fragments accumulate and begin to overlap, so that they become increasingly hard to read.

Answer 22

Neisser’s term for the now rejected idea that the same memory can reappear, unchanged, again and again.

Answer 23

Vivid, detailed memories of significant events.

Answer 24

The theory that especially significant experiences are immediately “photocopied,” preserved in long-term memory, and resistant to change.

Answer 25

1. Surprisingness (can fail due to inattention) 2. Consequentiality (if not, likely to forget it and not create move on to the next stage) 3. Create the flashbulb memory 4. Rehearsing the memory 5. Retelling the memory

Answer 26

Less specific answers (the name of a friend --> a friend), they are only easier to recall because of the rehearsing and/or the retelling + emotionality. Not because they are more accurate. Decrease in consistency and increase in inconsistency

Answer 27

The classic theory that memory traces of an event are not fully formed immediately after that event, but take some time to consolidate.

Answer 28

A decline in recall of one event as a result of a later event.

Answer 29

The hypothetical process whereby a memory trace is revised and reconsolidated. the context in which you recall a flashbulb event may be quite different from the context in which you originally experienced it. This provides an opportunity for revision of the memory trace, although the extent of such revision is controversial. A memory trace can be reactivated and reconsolidated indefinitely. Thus we have no reason to believe that a memory trace is necessarily a faithful rendition of the original experience.

Answer 30

The attempt to make memory as coherent and sensible as possible. It is imaginative reconstruction, or construction, built out of the relation of our attitude towards a whole active mass of organized past reactions or experience, and to a little outstanding detail which commonly appears in image or in language form

Answer 31

The theory that some errors of memory are caused by mistaken identification of the memory’s source.

Answer 32

the principle of encoding specificity: that a cue is more likely to lead to the recall of a particular item if the cue was initially encoded along with that item Tulving argued that the ability to remember a given item depends on how that item was encoded at input. In other words, the nature of the encoding will influence the memory trace.

Answer 33

state-dependent learning: the idea that recall is best when the mental or physiological state of the learner is consistent across encoding and retrieval. While recall was indeed better for many participants in the congruent condition, confidence levels were also much higher, even among those who were wrong.

Answer 34

one feature that distinguishes a script from a schema is that a script refers to a particular sequence of events or actions

Answer 35

It proposes that newly encoded memories are repeatedly activated during sleep, and that through this repeated activation, more stable memory traces are formed that can be further integrated with existing long-term memories susceptibility to false-memory formation increased for participants who were already sleep-deprived when they encoded the original information and then were exposed to false information

Answer 36

children experience events will change as they develop the ability to describe them using language and this change may cause them to lose contact with early memories

Answer 37

An increase in the number of memories between 10 and 30 years of age over what would be expected if memories decayed smoothly over time. They tend to focus on the periods when they were making formative decisions. Between the ages of 10 and 30 are particularly memorable because of their importance in the formation of a person’s identity. Emphasize the importance of what they call life scripts

Answer 38

The odour cue produced more memories from between ages 6 and 10 than did the verbal cue.Thus odours may bypass verbally encoded memories and make contact with memories formed so early in life that they were not encoded in words.

Answer 39

Distinctiveness (discussed below) is the notion that relatively novel events will tend to be remembered better than events that are similar to one another. The second and third decades of life are a period when people are likely to experience a number of distinctive events

Answer 40

The more deeply we process an event, the more thoroughly we will comprehend it. The more important an event is to us, the more effort we will put into comprehending it, and thus the more likely we are to recall it accurately. Thus depth of processing is a continuum that ranges from registering an event purely in terms of its physical characteristics to analyzing it in terms of its meaning and relationship to other things that you know From shallow to intermediate to deep processing

Answer 41

There is evidence that the more distinctively an item is elaborated, the better it will be remembered Elaboration has been defined as “extra processing . . . that results in additional, related or redundant” material, while distinctiveness, in a broad sense, refers to the precision with which an item is encoded

Answer 42

specific and general levels of representation: As people age they tend to forget specific details but to remember deeper, more general meanings.

Answer 43

Of two memory traces of equal strength, the younger trace will decay faster than the older one.

Answer 44

Older memories are less likely to be lost as a result of brain damage than are newer memories.

Answer 45

A “last in, first out” principle referring to the possibility that the last system to emerge is the first to show the effects of degeneration.

Answer 46

The theory that there are two ways of representing events, verbal and non-verbal.

Answer 47

The units containing the information underlying our use of a word; the components of the verbal system. Logogens operate sequentially. When you listen to a sentence, for example, the words are not present all at once, but come one after the other

Answer 48

The units containing information that generate mental images; the components of the nonverbal system. Imagens operate synchronously: the parts they contain are available for inspection simultaneously.

Answer 49

According to Paivio’s (1971) theory, words that easily elicit a mental image—that is, words with a high degree of imagery—tend to be concrete (e.g., table), whereas words that don’t easily elicit a mental image tend to be abstract (e.g., purpose). Concreteness is define as the degree to which a word refers to “concrete objects, persons, places, or things that can be heard, felt, smelled or tasted” (Toglia & Battig, 1978). In other words, concreteness is the degree to which a word refers to something that can be experienced by the senses.

Answer 50

According to Paivio’s (1971) theory, words that easily elicit a mental image—that is, words with a high degree of imagery—tend to be concrete (e.g., table), whereas words that don’t easily elicit a mental image tend to be abstract (e.g., purpose). Concreteness is define as the degree to which a word refers to “concrete objects, persons, places, or things that can be heard, felt, smelled or tasted” (Toglia & Battig, 1978). In other words, concreteness is the degree to which a word refers to something that can be experienced by the senses. Thus there are some words, such as pain and love, that are not concrete but still elicit vivid mental imagery. These words often refer to emotions. Thus in addition to external sources of imagery there are internal, emotional sources.

Answer 51

Notice that learning was best when both words were concrete and worst when both were abstract. A concrete word can be coded by both the verbal and non-verbal systems, whereas an abstract word will tend to be coded only by the verbal system because it is not likely to elicit much of an image. The fact that a concrete word is coded in two systems means that it is more easily available to memory than an abstract word that is coded in only the verbal system

Answer 52

The theory that the left hemisphere of the brain controls speech and is better at processing verbal material than is the right hemisphere, which is better at non-verbal tasks. After a review of the relevant neuroimaging research, Fiebach and Friederici (2003, p. 66) concluded that the evidence “does not fully support the assumption of a specific right-hemispheric involvement during the processing of concrete relative to abstract words.”

Answer 53

The idea was to establish a cognitive map of a large building and place in each of its various loci an image representing one of the things to be remembered; then recalling those things would simply be a matter of mentally strolling through the building and collecting the images.

Answer 54

If one item in a set is different from the others, it is more likely to be recalled.

Answer 55

Choosing a storage location that other people will not think of; the problem is that when the time comes to retrieve the item, you may not think of it either.

Answer 56

Beliefs about how memory works.

Answer 57

Perhaps adult synesthesia occurs when this pruning process fails to run its course, and what were supposed to be transient connections end up being permanent. It has been suggested that, in the case of synesthetes, the ‘pruning’ gene is defective,” resulting “in cross-activation between areas of the brain”

Answer 58

The initial, brief representation of the information contained in a visual stimulus.

Answer 59

Images projected onto the external world that persist for a minute or more even after a stimulus (e.g., a picture) is removed.

Answer 60

Fusion of perceptual processes that typically function independently. (e.g. synesthesia & eidetic imagery)

Answer 61

The answer is that vividness of visual imagery does not appear to be a good predictor of superior performance on memory tasks. However, vividness is not an index of the accuracy of memory, only of its richness.

Answer 62

objective distances The true distances between objects in the real world, which are preserved in our mental images. categorical distance The number of units traversed during mental scanning: for instance, landmarks on an island map, rooms in a building, or counties in a state.

Answer 63

It was not so much that participants were more sensitive to stimuli falling within the imaged region as it was that they were better prepared to pick up stimuli falling within the area of a projected image. Farah characterized this process in terms used by Ryle (1949) and Neisser (1976). Neisser defined an image as a readiness to perceive something suggests that imagery is an active process that prepares you for perceiving information, and not just a passive representation of information.

Answer 64

You imagine yourself moving, while the objects in the environment remain still.

Answer 65

A conscious experience of sound—typically a short phrase of catchy music— that seems to get stuck on replay in your head.

Answer 66

The smallest unit in language. Phonemes are combined to form morphemes. morpheme The smallest unit in language that carries meaning.

Answer 67

This observation, and others like it, led Chomsky to make a sharp distinction between grammar and semantics, the study of meaning. He argued that the processes that make a sentence grammatical are different from the processes that make a sentence meaningful.

Answer 68

Rules operating on entire strings of symbols to convert them to new strings.

Answer 69

We may have an internalized system of rules that constitutes a basic linguistic competence, but this competence may not always be reflected in our actual use of the language (performance).

Answer 70

The meaning is at one level, called the deep structure, whereas the words are at another level, called the surface structure. The distinction between deep and surface structure allows us to understand a number of interesting linguistic phenomena, including ambiguous sentences.

Answer 71

the existence of ambiguity in language illustrates why we need to make a distinction between deep and surface structure. The same surface structure can be derived from different deep structures. The different meanings of the above sentences, for example, are carried by two different deep structures. Meaning is not given on the surface of a sentence: it is given by the deep structure interpretation of the sentence. When we understand a sentence, we transform a surface structure into a deep structure.

Answer 72

The hypothesis that children innately possess a language acquisition device that comes equipped with principles of universal grammar

Answer 73

The argument that the linguistic environment to which a child is exposed is not good enough to enable language acquisition on its own.

Answer 74

A tacit agreement whereby the speaker agrees to connect new information to what the listener already knows.'

Answer 75

A model of communication based on the information processing theory. According to Sperber and Wilson, the code model assumes that speaker and listener have a great deal of knowledge in common: otherwise the listener would not be able to decode the signal properly and arrive at the correct interpretation.

Answer 76

The inferential model derives from the work of Grice (1957/1971, 1975), who analyzed communication in terms of intentions and inferences. A speaker intends to inform a listener, and the listener infers what the speaker intends

Answer 77

1. Say no more than is necessary (maxim of quantity); 2. Be truthful (maxim of quality); 3. Be relevant (maxim of relation); and 4. Avoid ambiguity and be clear (maxim of manner).

Answer 78

Speech that does not take the listener's perspective into account. Egocentric speech declines as the child becomes socialized, and social speech develops in its place. Vygotsky argued that egocentric speech does not disappear but becomes inner speech.

Answer 79

suggested that one way inner speech may be articulated is by means of the phonological loop part of working memory

Answer 80

surface dyslexia A form of dyslexia affecting only the ability to recognize words as entire units; the ability to read words letter-by-letter remains intact. phonological dyslexia A form of dyslexia affecting only the ability to read letter-by-letter; the ability to recognize words as entire units remains intact. dual route theory The theory there are two separate pathways for reading, one for comparing words to a mental dictionary and another for converting letters to sounds and stringing the sounds together to make words.

Answer 81

The hypothesis that two languages may be so different from one another as to make their native speakers’ experience of the world qualitatively different

Answer 82

objective distances The true distances between objects in the real world, which are preserved in our mental images. categorical distance The number of units traversed during mental scanning: for instance, landmarks on an island map, rooms in a building, or counties in a state.

Answer 83

Beliefs about how memory works.

Answer 84

amnesic patients do poorly on tasks requiring explicit memory, but much better on those requiring implicit memory. People with amnesia may be able to form associations, and thus learn new material. However, this learning would be available to them only in implicit, not explicit, form.

Answer 85

Nope They are similar but different

Answer 86

I don't know yet ... fill me in

Answer 87

I don't know yet... something about neural communication

Answer 88

These are just categories memory (does not fully describe what memory is) There are other important memory systems

Answer 89

Declarative Episodic Semantic Echoic Iconic Implicit We add these to the classics Long-term Short-term Working memory

Answer 90

Knowledge of "rules" of something (no autobiographical time) Words, concepts, things in general that we know eg. "what is semantic memory" Ex salt is sodium chloride

Answer 91

Short term memory in auditory perceptual systems (Brodbants model)

Answer 92

Short term memory in visual system (perceptual from Brondbant's model)

Answer 93

Declarative memory

Answer 94

Echo & Icon (sensory memory)

Answer 95

1. Sensory 2. Short-Term/Working 3. Long term

Answer 96

We could add sensory like touch etc.

Answer 97

Have a "what" and "when" time component

Answer 98

Has "what" Unlike episodic has no 'when'

Answer 99

Yes Eg Patient KC/NN had brain damage (knowledge of words somatic memory is intact) He has issues with episodic memory but 10min later - missed 2/4 and added 1 ... when asked about words he was asked about was not good at it, a lot he did not remember. But 3 min later (probe with non-declarative parts of memory) did not remember sanctuary then needed much phonological cues to even guess 1 of the 2.

Answer 100

Brain injury studies Eg NN/KC semantic words intact but not able to form declarative memories of what happened to him Eg WJ has knowledge of stuff (semantic) but not where it came from (episodic)

Answer 101

Within 12 months = 70% of events (or maybe this is just WJ *Clarify)

Answer 102

Inability to remember something from our own past

Answer 103

nothing new could be encoded into episodic memory When looking at the last 12 months there was a big difference 70% for others 5% for her

Answer 104

Yes for all of the memory systems we can see that these can be broken down into two functions

Answer 105

Something we can easily talk about

Answer 106

Something that is hard to describe we can demonstrate but hard to talk about Eg Bruno

Answer 107

Procedural memory

Answer 108

A memory of what we can do - Skill Hard to explain, if we try, we have to go through a process of trying to understand and explain but still hard. Eg Robots hard cuz we don't understand but machine learning models help robots

Answer 109

Procedural memory intact (could retain new habits ex new music since his semantic memory reading music intact) Skilled musician 30 sec of memory - not retaining new information (both retrograde and anterograde amnesia) Diary - repeated experience of waking up ... again and again ...

Answer 110

Antero - going forward Inability to encode new memories (going forward in time)

Answer 111

Antero - (nothing new) Inability to remember things going forward in time

Answer 112

Yes through procedural memory (play music) he can learn new habits (non-declarative) Despite retrograde (things in the past get lost) and Anterograde amnesia (nothing new) Priming worked on him

Answer 113

Non Declarative Implicit process of activation storing or retrieving a memory

Answer 114

A stimulus that activates a probe/target (or response) Consciously priming A form of memory we don't really know how to explain so unconscious Eg. Weather related words primed the idea of ... Hot Snow but Cold not on list

Answer 115

We remember the first things we are shown more than the middle Had the most time to practice

Answer 116

We remember more the last things we have seen recently eg last word

Answer 117

The words in the middle

Answer 118

Yes Priming process they have implanted or activated a word from understanding spreading activation of network of words

Answer 119

Yes Priming process they have implanted or activated a word from understanding spreading activation of network of words

Exam 2 COPY Flashcards

Understand the memory systems and the differences between short-term and working memory understand the process of spreading activation in the context of memory Understand how studying memory deficits help us learn about the nature of memory