Exam 2 Slow Study Deck Flashcards
Smallest unit of life
Cell
Cells perform many functions to maintain?
Homeostasis
First person to discover cells using a microscope.
Robert Hooke
What are the three parts of cell theory?
- All living things are made of cells
- The cell performs all the functions necessary for life
- All cells come from preexisting cells.
Human cells are ___________, meaning they have a membrane-bound nucleus
Eukaryotic
Human cells are eukaryotic, meaning they have a membrane-bound __________
Nucleus
Most cells have _____ nucleus
One
The ________ is the control center of the cell
Nucleus
_________ holds the genetic material of the cell (DNA)
Nucleus
The cell nucleus is surrounded by a _____________ with pores
Nuclear membrane
The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane with __________
Pores
Inside the nucleus is a __________ where rRNA is made
Nucleolus
Inside the nucleus is a nucleolus where _______ is made
rRNA
What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?
Rough and smooth
Which endoplasmic reticulum is connected to the nuclear membrane?
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with _________
Ribosomes
The _______ ER is responsible for the synthesis and modification of proteins that are for export
Rough
Which ER is responsible for the synthesis and modification of proteins that are for export?
Rough
Which ER lacks ribosomes?
Smooth ER
Which ER is responsible for making phospholipids for the cell membrane or steroid lipids for hormones?
Smooth
In some cells (muscle), the smooth ER can store __________
Calcium
What is the difference between rough and smooth ER functionally?
Rough ER is responsible for the synthesis and modification of proteins that are for export, and smooth ER is responsible for making phospholipids for the cell membrane or steroid lipids for hormones.
Site of protein synthesis?
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are made of a small and large ribosomal subunit made in the __________
Nucleolus
Ribosomes are made of a ________ and _________ ribosomal subunit made in the nucleolus
Small; large
Proteins made by fixed ribosomes are usually exported as part of a _________
Membrane
Proteins made by free ribosomes usually stay in the _________
Cytoplasm
Receives products from the endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
How many sides does the golgi apparatus have?
Two; incoming and exiting
What is the purpose of the golgi apparatus?
Modifies, sorts, and ships products from the ER.
Exported products from the golgi apparatus will travel by vesicles to the _________ and fuse with it, releasing their products.
Cell membrane
Where do lysosomes come from?
The golgi
Lysosomes contain digestive ______ for ridding the cell of old organelles or pathogens
Enzymes
Lysosomes can also be used for _________ under some conditions
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death, sometimes called “cell suicide” that occurs when a cell is damaged, infected with a virus, or becoming cancerous.
Apoptosis
Mitochondrion are used for ________ production
Energy
Site of cellular respiration in a cell
Mitochondrion
The process of burning carbohydrates to make energy for the cell
Cellular respiration
Makes 95% of the ATP a cell uses
Mitochondrion
What part of the mitochondria performs an oxidative phosphorylation (making ATP with the electron transport chain.
Inner membrane
Process of making ATP with the electron transport chain
Oxidative phosphorylation
Mitochondria are self-_________
Replicating
Mitochondria have their own ______ and their own _________ to make needed proteins
DNA; ribosomes
Mitochondria are present in cells that have a high _______ need
Energy
The higher the energy need of the cell, the more ________ it will contain
Mitochondria
Peroxisomes perform ______ functions in the cells
Many
Peroxisomes have a ______ metabolism
Lipid
What kind of metabolism do peroxisomes have?
Lipid
Peroxisomes are responsible for ________ detoxification, like alcohol
Chemical
Enzymes in peroxisomes are used for making ________ and then reducing it to water
H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
How do peroxisomes make H2O2 and then reduce it to water?
Enzymes
Why do peroxisomes make H2O2 and then reduce it to water?
To reduce oxidative stress on the cell from free radicals
What are the functions of the cytoskeleton?
Cell support
Cell movement
Cell division
Transportation inside the cells
What are the three fibrous proteins of the cytoskeleton?
Microtubules
Intermediate filaments
Microfilaments
Purpose of microtubules in the cytoskeleton?
Support and maintain organelle position
Purpose of intermediate filaments in the cytoskeleton?
Cell shape and support
Purpose of microfilaments in the cytoskeleton?
Movement
What are microvilli made of?
Microfilaments of the cytoskeleton
Purpose of microvilli?
Increase absorptive area of a cell
What are flagellum made of?
Microtubules of the cytoskeleton
The only human cell that uses flagella are?
Sperm
What is used to propel sperm?
Flagellum
Are flagellum longer or shorter than cilia?
Longer
What are cilia made of?
Microtubules of the skeleton
Cilia have ______ to move substances across cell surfaces
Motility
Which is longer? Microvilli or cilia?
Cilia
What makes microtubules?
Centrioles
What helps separate chromosomes during mitosis?
Microtubules
Makes proteins
Ribosome
Increases surface area/absorptive area of the cell
Microvilli
Digestive sacs
Lysosomes
Modifies and packages material for export
Golgi apparatus
Makes cell membrane lipids
Smooth ER
Moves particles across the cell surface
Cilia
Liquid-like portion of the cytoplasm absent the organelles
Cytosol
Allows sperm to swim
Flagellum
Makes protein within a membrane for export
Rough ER
Holds the genome of the cell
Nucleus
Site of energy production
Mitochondrion
Helps maintain cell shape
Cytoskeleton
Guides DNA during mitosis
Centrioles
Large fibrous proteins of the cytoskeleton
Microtubules
Important in cell detoxification of free radicals
Peroxisomes
What organelle would we need to “gum up” to prevent proteins synthesis?
Ribosomes
A child suffers from a disease where their food molecules are not completely broken down and do not release full energy. The child grows slowly, has muscle weakness, and has developmental delays. What organelle is not functioning properly?
Mitochondria
A power plant worker has been exposed to atoms with a higher than normal atomic mass. These isotopes have irradiated him. Now he has mutations in his DNA that have damaged his genes. What organelle is damaged?
Nucleus
Organelle responsible for sorting, modifying, and shipping off the products that come from the rough ER.
Golgi apparatus
Organelle which contains enzymes that break down and digest unneeded cellular components.
Lysosomes
Organelle which serves as the site of protein synthesis
Ribosomes
Organelle which serves as the cellular origin point for microtubules extending outward as cilia or flagella or can assist with the separation of DNA during cell division
Centrioles
Cell’s central organelle, which contains the cell’s DNA
Nucleus
Organelle responsible for the synthesis and modification of proteins destined for the cell membrane or for export from the cell
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Organelle specialized for cell locomotion
Flagella
A membranous, bean-shaped organelle that is the “energy transformer” of the cell
Mitochondria
Synthesizes phospholipids, the main component of biological membranes, as well as steroid hormones
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Organelle which moves rhythmically; they beat constantly, moving waste materials such as dust, mucus, and bacteria upward through the airways, away from the lungs and toward the mouth.
Cilia
Organelle responsible for lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification
Peroxisomes
The _________ is a group of fibrous proteins that provide structural support for cells, are critical for cell motility, cell reproduction, and transportation of substances within the cell.
Cytoskeleton
True or false? The endoplasmic reticulum is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) if mitochondria are associated with the membrane.
False
Allows some molecules to pass through and inhibits others
Semipermeable
Non-polar, fearing water
Hydrophobic
Polar, likes water
Hydrophilic
Contains both a hydrophobic and hydrophilic part, i.e., phospholipid
Amphipathic
The molecules that dissolve in the solvent
Solute
The substance that can dissolve molecules (usually water)
Solvent
A molecule that binds to a protein on the cell membrane
Ligand
Difference in concentration of substances across the membrane
Concentration gradient
Components of the cell membrane?
Glycocalyx
Phospholipid bilayer
Glycolipid
Cholesterol
Peripheral protein
Integral protein
The dense, gel-like meshwork that surrounds the cell, constituting a physical barrier for any object to enter the cell.
Glycocalyx
A thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules in the cell wall.
Phospholipid bilayer
a carbohydrate that is covalently linked to a lipid.
Glycolipid
a waxy substance found in your blood.
Cholesterol
Membrane-spanning proteins which reside within the bilayer membranes that surround cells and organelles.
Integral proteins
Proteins which form temporary bonds with the cell membrane, allowing them to detach and reattach at specific times, with specific signals.
Peripheral proteins
Part of cell membrane made of glycoproteins, glycolipids, and other sugars.
Glycocalyx
Membrane structure which helps protect and lubricate cells
Glycocalyx
Cell membrane structure which helps with cell binding to other cells.
Glycocalyx
Cell membrane structure, can have receptors or enzymes
Glycocalyx
Cell membrane structure whose big role is self-identity
Glycocalyx
In the phospholipid bilayer, phospholipids move in which direction?
Laterally
The phospholipid bilayer is __________ permeable
Selectively
Part of cell membrane that contains carbohydrates for cell identity and act as identifiers and part of the glycocalyx
Glycolipids
Glycolipids contain ________ for cell identity and act as identifiers and part of the glycocalyx
Carbohydrates
A ringed lipid made by the body that helps to stabilize the plasma membrane and maintain fluidity
Cholesterol
Proteins which pass all the way through the membrane
Integral proteins
Channel proteins in the cell membrane
Integral proteins
Proteins in the cell membrane that can act as receptors to bind ligands
Integral proteins
Proteins which are only on one side of the membrane
Peripheral proteins
Proteins in the cell membrane which can aid in cell signaling or act as enzymes
Peripheral proteins
Peripheral proteins can aid in cell _________ or act as __________
Signaling; enzymes
Functions of the cell membrane?
Acts as barrier
Used as self-identifier
Contains receptors for hormones
The phosphate heads of the cell membrane are hydro_______
hydrophilic
The fatty acid tails of the cell membrane are hydro_______
hydrophobic
Glycolipids are made of?
Lipids + carbohydrates
Cell membrane component that stabilizes
Cholesterol
________ transport uses the concentration gradient of a substance, so no energy or ATP is required.
Passive
Passive transport uses the ____________ of a substance, so no energy or ATP is required
Concentration gradient
In _______ transport, substances flow uphill or are pumped
Active
________ transport moves substances against the concentration gradient or must expend energy to perform the transport, so it will need energy or ATP.
Active
In passive transport, substances move from an area of _______ concentration to an area of ________ concentration
Higher; lower
What are the types of passive transport?
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
Diffusion can happen with or without a __________ membrane
Semi-permeable
When particles move from an area of high concentration to low concentration
Diffusion (a type of passive transport)
Is energy required for osmosis?
No, it is passive transport
Movement of water molecules from a high concentration to low concentration
Osmosis
Selective process involving the passive movement of molecules along the concentration gradient.
Facilitated diffusion
Do passive transport mechanisms need energy to perform?
No
_______ move from high concentration to low concentration
Solutes
In _______ diffusion, substances move with the concentration gradient across the cell membrane via the protein channel.
facilitated
In _______ transport, substances move from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration
Active
Which mode of transport requires energy?
Active
What are the types of active transport?
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Protein pumps
What are some types of endocytosis?
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
The process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle, giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome.
Phagocytosis
The ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane.
Pinocytosis
What kind of energy does active transport require?
ATP
What mode of transport moves substances against the concentration gradient?
Active transport
Active transport proteins are often called ________.
Pumps
The mechanisms of active transport include?
Pumps
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
What is an example of an active transport pump?
The sodium/potassium pump
The sodium potassium pump moves sodium ______ the cell and potassium ______ the cell.
Out of; into
Type of active transport generally used for larger molecules or pathogens
Phagocytosis
White blood cells removing bacteria would be considered _______ transport
Active
The movement of glucose into the cell would be considered _________ transport
Passive
Is phagocytosis active or passive transport?
Active
Is pinocytosis active or passive transport?
Active
Is the movement of gases through the cell membrane considered active or passive transport?
Passive
Is exocytosis considered active or passive transport?
Active
Is the sodium-potassium pump considered active or passive transport?
Active
Is diffusion considered active or passive transport?
Passive
Is endocytosis considered active or passive transport?
Active
Is facilitated diffusion considered active or passive transport?
Passive
Is osmosis considered active or passive transport?
Passive
A _____________ molecule (or region of a molecule) is one that is attracted to water, while a __________ molecule (or region of a molecule) repels and is repelled by water.
Hydrophilic; hydrophobic
An ___________ molecule is one that contains both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic region.
Amphipathic
A channel protein is an example of a __________ protein that selectively allows particular materials, such as certain ions, to pass into or out of the cell.
Integral
A _________ is the specific molecule that binds to and activates a receptor.
Ligand
__________ helps to contribute to the fluidity of the cell membrane.
Cholesterol
During __________, ATP is required to move a substance across a membrane, often with the help of protein carriers, and usually against its concentration gradient.
Active transport
A membrane that has __________ permeability allows only substances meeting certain criteria to pass through it unaided.
Selective
____________ diffusion is the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to their size, charge, and/or polarity.
Facilitated
A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution is said to be _____________, while a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution is said to be __________
Hypertonic; hypotonic.
__________ has a lower concentration of fluid, sugars and salt than blood.
Hypotonic
_________ has a higher concentration of fluid, sugars and salt than blood
Hypertonic
Any external solution that has a high solute concentration and low water concentration compared to body fluids.
Hypertonic solution
Any external solution that has a low solute concentration and high water concentration compared to body fluids
Hypotonic solution
Sequence of DNA that codes for a single protein
Gene
Loose strand of DNA
Chromatin
Condensed structure of DNA and proteins formed during cell division; in humans arranged in 23 pairs
Chromosome
____ is a nucleic acid made of nucleotides containing nitreogenous bases.
DNA
DNA is a _________ made of nucleotides containing nitreogenous bases.
Nucleic acid
DNA is a nucleic acid made of _________ containing nitreogenous bases.
Nucleotides
DNA is a nucleic acid made of nucleotides containing ___________ bases.
Nitrogenous
The bases of DNA are arranged in ___________ base pairs
Complementary
Two stands of DNA form a ?
Double helix
What are the four nitrogenous bases of DNA?
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
DNA contains the sugar ______________ and phosphate groups
Deoxyribose
DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and __________ groups
Phosphate
Complentary bases of DNA?
A-T and C-G
The bases in DNA are held together by _________ bonds
Hydrogen
Complimentary strand to ATA-GTG
TAT-CAC
Complimentary strand to TTT-CCG
AAA-GGC
DNA is usually found in loose strands called ?
Chromatin
Chromatin is wound around proteins (________) for packaging and called a nucleosome.
Histones
Chromatin is wound around ________ (histones) for packaging and called a nucleosome.
Protein
Chromatin is wound around proteins (histones) for packaging and called a ________
Nucleosome
During cell division, the chromatin will _________ and become visible.
Condense
During ___________, the chromatin will condense and become visible.
Cell division
During cell division, the chromatin will condense and become visible. This is known as a ?
Chromosome
Humans have ___ pairs of chromosomes, to a total of ___ chromosomes.
23; 46
Both forms of DNA, loose __________ and densely-coiled _________, still hold the genes each cell needs to operate.
Chromatin; chromosomes
Both forms of DNA, loose chromatin and densely-coiled chromosomes, still hold the _____ each cell needs to operate.
Genes
A segment of DNA that codes for a product, usually a protein.
Gene
A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a product, usually a ?
Protein
The sequence of _______ found on DNA is the genetic code that is read to make a protein.
Bases
The sequence of bases found on DNA is the genetic ______ that is read to make a protein.
Code
The sequence of bases found on DNA is the genetic code that is read to make a ________
Protein
Before a cell can divide, the DNA in the cell needs to __________ so each new cell gets all the DNA needed to function properly.
Replicate
Before a cell can _________, the DNA in the cell needs to replicate so each new cell gets all the DNA needed to function properly.
Divide
An enzyme needed for replication, _______separates the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs
Helicase
An enzyme needed for replication, ____________ brings in the complimentary base to build a new strand.
DNA polymerase
During replication, what happens once the two new strands are built?
The process stops
DNA replication can take place in ________ and results in two identical strands.
Interphase
After DNA replication, what is the result?
Two identical strands; each with one new strand and one old strand.
DNA replication results in ?
Two identical daughter cells
What unwinds the DNA during replication?
DNA helicase
What creates the two new identical strands in DNA replication?
DNA polymerase
What phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
“S” phase
What is necessary to produce identical daughter cells during mitotic cell division?
DNA replication
How does DNA helicase unwind DNA?
By breaking hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases
The unwound DNA strands serve as ________ for new, complementary strands
Templates
What are the three steps to DNA replication?
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
During which step in DNA replication are the two complementary strands separated?
Initiation
During which step in DNA replication do special enzymes, including helicase, untwist and separate the two strands of DNA?
Initiation
If one strand of DNA has a region with the sequence AGTGCC, then the sequence of the complementary strand would be
TCACGG
the copying of DNA that occurs before cell division can take place.
DNA replication
A cell with two copies of a chromosome
Diploid
A pair of chromosomes, one from each parent
Homologous
Exact copies of DNA molecules found during mitosis
Sister chromatid
Attaches two sister chromatids together
Centromere
Normal body cells (Does not include sex cells: eggs or sperm)
Somatic cell
Cells containing one half (haploid) of the somatic cells
Sex cell
All cells have a _____ cycle, and the time that is spent in different phases of the cell cycle varies by cell type.
Cell
All cells have a cell cycle, and the time that is spent in different phases of the cell cycle ______ by cell type.
Varies
Neurons ______ divide
Do not
Neurons do not divide and spend much of their cell cycle in the ___ phase
G0
Epithelial cells divide ________ and will go through interphase and mitosis every few days.
Frequently
Epithelial cells divide frequently and will go through _________ and ________ every few days.
Interphase; mitosis
Epithelial cells divide frequently and will go through interphase and mitosis every few days. The result is two new _________ cells to the original parent cell.
Identical
Before cells can ________, their DNA must be copied.
Divide
Before cells can divide, their DNA must be ________
Copied
Before cells can divide, their DNA must be copied. The resulting DNA is arranged in _____________, and in homologous pairs.
Sister chromatids
Before cells can divide, their DNA must be copied. The resulting DNA is arranged in sister chromatids, and in _________________
Homologous pairs
The time when a cell is not dividing.
Interphase
The time when a cell is not dividing. During ___________, the cell will do normal cell functions and prepare for division.
Interphase
The time when a cell is not dividing. During interphase, the cell will do ________ cell functions and prepare for division.
Normal
The time when a cell is not dividing. During interphase, the cell will do normal cell functions and prepare for __________
Division
The sequence of cell growth and division
Cell cycle
What are the three phases of interphase?
G1, S, G2
The G1 phase is part of what cell cycle phase?
Interphase
The G1 phase of interphase is also called the __________
Growth/gap phase 1
The S phase is part of what cell cycle phase?
Interphase
The S phase of interphase is also called the ______ phase
Synthesis
The G2 phase is part of what cell cycle phase?
Interphase
The G2 phase of interphase is also called the?
Growth/gap phase 2
Cell division is also known as the ____ phase in the cell cycle
M
What are the phases of cell division?
Mitosis (nuclear division)
Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)
Which phase of cell division is nuclear division?
Mitosis
Which phase of cell division is cytoplasmic division?
Cytokinesis
How many phases are there of interphase?
3 - G1, s, and G2
How many phases are there of cell division (M phase)
1, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis
How many phases total are there in the cell cycle?
- Interphase (G1, S, and G2), and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
During which phase of interphase does cell growth occur?
G1
During which phase of interphase does DNA replication occur?
S
During which phase of interphase does additional cell division preparation occur?
G2
During which phase of the cell cycle does Mitosis and cytokinesis occur?
M
What is G0?
The resting phase of the cell cycle - the cell will not divide.
The first growth phase for cells that will divide again
G1
__ phase is the replication (synthesis) of DNA
S
____ phase is the second growth phase, and the cell prepares for mitosis.
G2
The phase where the cell is actively dividing
M phase
The longest phase of interphase?
S phase
the time when a cell is actively dividing
Mitosis
What are the four phases of mitosis?
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
What is visible in the cell during prophase (of mitosis)?
The nucleolus and chromatin
During what phase of mitosis does chromatin condense into chromosomes?
Prophase
The central part of a chromosome
Centromere
The two “bunny ears” of a chromosome are ?
Sister chromatids
During which phase of mitosis do centrioles line up chromosomes a the equator?
Metaphase
During which phase of mitosis do the chromatids break apart at the centromere and move to opposite poles?
Anaphase
During which phase of mitosis do Two nuclei form after nuclear envelopes reform around each group of chromosomes?
Telophase
Where are the centrioles located during anaphase?
At the poles
During which phase of mitosis are there two nucleoli
Telophase
During which phase of mitosis do chromosomes condense and become visible as homologous pairs and as sister chromatids?
Prophase
During which phase of mitosis does the nuclear membrane disappear?
Prophase
During which phase of mitosis do spindle fibers form from the centromere (centriole) and attach to the centromere?
Prophase
During which phase of mitosis do the centrioles move toward opposite poles?
Prophase
During which phase of mitosis do chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate or equator?
Metaphase
During which phase of mitosis do the spindle fibers attach to the centromeres, holding sister chromatids together?
Metaphase
During which phase of mitosis do the centromeres split and the sister chromatids are pulled towards each pole?
Anaphase
During which phase of mitosis do the spindle fibers shorten to pull the chromosomes toward the poles? Other fibers also elongate to begin separating the cell.
Anaphase
During which phase of mitosis do chromosomes at their new poles decondense into chromatin?
Telophase
During which phase of mitosis does a nuclear membrane start surrounding the chromosomes?
Telophase
During which phase of mitosis does the mitotic spindle break down?
Telophase
During which phase of mitosis do spindle fibers keep pushing the poles apart?
Telophase
The phase that overlaps at the end of telophase
Cytokinesis
During which phase of the cell cycle does the cytosplasm separate between the new cells?
Cytokinesis
During which phase of the cell cycle is a cleavage furrow made by microfilaments (actin filaments) which create a separation between the two new cells?
Cytokinesis
During the normal cell cycle, how many checkpoints are there where the cell either proceeds or stops?
3
What are the three checkpoints in the cell cycle?
G1 checkpoint (restriction
G2 checkpoint
M checkpoint
The ___ checkpoint is when the cell needs to be ready to replicate the DNA.
G1
The G1 checkpoint is when the cell needs to be ready to replicate the DNA. The cell is large enough has enough reserves for ___________
DNA replication
What is the first checkpoint in the cell cycle?
G1
What is the second checkpoint in the cell cycle?
G2
What is the third and final checkpoint in the cell cycle?
M checkpoint
The ___ checkpoint is when the cell needs to be ready for mitosis. The DNA must be properly replicated.
G2
The G2 checkpoint is when the cell needs to be ready for mitosis. The DNA must be properly ________
Replicated
What is necessary for a cell to pass the G2 checkpoint?
DNA must be properly replicated
What is necessary for a cell to pass the G2 checkpoint?
The cell must be large enough and have enough reserves for DNA replication
The ___ checkpoint occurs during metaphase of mitosis to make sure all sister chromatids are attached and in the proper places so each cell gets a complete set of chromosomes.
M
What must happen for a cell to pass the M checkpoint?
All sister chromatids must be attached and in the proper place so each cell gets a complete set of chromosomes.
Cell signals tell the cell to either ___ (divide) or _____ (don’t divide)
Go; stop
Cell signals tell the cell to either ______ or _______
Go (divide); stop (don’t divide)
common cell signal regulating mitosis.
Cyclins
What are cyclins?
common cell signal regulating mitosis.
What tells the cell to divide?
Proto-oncogenes
__________ tell the cell to divide.
Proto-oncogenes
________ genes tell the cell to stop.
Tumor suppressor
What king of genes tell the cell to stop dividing?
Tumor suppressor genes
________ can make a proto-oncogene into an oncogene.
Mutations
Mutations can make a proto-oncogene into an _________
Oncogene
A change in the nucleotide sequence in a gene within a cell’s DNA, potentially altering the protein coded for that gene.
Mutation
A mutation is A change in the __________ sequence in a gene within a cell’s DNA, potentially altering the protein coded for that gene.
Nucleotide
A mutation is A change in the nucleotide sequence in a gene within a cell’s DNA, potentially altering the _______ coded for that gene.
Protein
What is an ROS?
Reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can cause permanent damage to:
Cellular lipids
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Nucleic acids
What is an example of a reactive oxygen species (ROS)?
Hydrogen peroxide
Damaged DNA can lead to genetic __________ and even _________
Mutations; cancer
Lack of cell regulation can allow cells to grow out of control
Cancer
Lack of cell ___________ can allow cells to grow out of control
Regulation
__________ cells lack contact inhibition, don’t resemble the cell of origin and often invade nearby tissues.
Cancerous
Cancerous cells lack contact ___________, don’t resemble the cell of origin and often invade nearby tissues.
Inhibition
Cancerous cells lack contact inhibition, don’t resemble the cell of _______ and often invade nearby tissues.
Origin
Cancerous cells lack contact inhibition, don’t resemble the cell of origin and often invade nearby ________
Tissues
Possible causes of cancer?
An abnormal oncogene with a continuous go signal; or a lack of a tumor suppressor gene that doesn’t tell the cells to stop.
Cancerous cells that travel to new sites are ____________
Metastasizing
Chromosomes pear, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear envelope disappears.
Prophase
Spindle fibers break down and chromatin appears.
Telophase
Chromatid pairs separate and move toward opposite sides of the cell.
Anaphase
The cytoplasm splits to form daughter cells.
Cytokinesis
Chromosomes align down the center of the cell.
Metaphase
During this stage, the sister chromatids, with their attached microtubules, line up along a linear plane in the middle of the cell.
Metaphase
Characterized by the formation of two new daughter nuclei at either end of the dividing cell is this phase?
Telophase
_________ are changes in DNA that can be passed to a new generation of cells
Mutations
A lack of cell signaling during ________ can lead to cancer.
Mitosis
During which checkpoint is the cell getting ready to replicate DNA
G1
During which checkpoint is the DNA replicated correctly?
G2
During which checkpoint are chromosomes all attached and lined up?
M
The chemical that can signal a cell to divide or stop dividing is
Cyclins
Two bases bonded together making the rung of the DNA and used to create DNA or RNA. (A-T, C-G in DNA; A-U, C-G in RNA)
Base pairing
DNA to RNA
Transcription
RNA to protein
Translation
Codes for an amino acid
Sense codons
Stop signs for translation
Stop codons
Found on tRNA; complementary bases to the mRNA codon
Anticodon
Small proteins made with amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Polypeptide
_____ has the genes needed to code for a particular protein.
DNA
DNA has the genes needed to code for a particular ________
Protein
DNA has the ______ needed to code for a particular protein.
Genes
The process of protein synthesis occurs is a series of steps starting in the _________ and ending at the __________
Nucleus; ribosome
DNA is in the ________ and is double stranded.
Nucleus
DNA is in the nucleus and is _________ stranded.
Double
__________ is the sugar on one strand and phosphate is on the other stand with the base pairs AT & CG connecting them.
Deoxyribose
Deoxyribose is the sugar on one strand and __________ is on the other strand with the base pairs AT & CG connecting them.
Phosphate
Proteins are ________ dependent and run many of the cells functions as enzymes.
Shape
The process of making protein is _____________, not all genes are expressed at all times.
Gene expression
____ > RNA > Protein
DNA
DNA > _____ > Protein
RNA
DNA > RNA > _________
Protein
________ > Codon > Amino Acid
Triplet
Triplet > ________ > Amino Acid
Codon
Triplet > Codon > ____________
Amino acid
RNA is important for building _______
Proteins
There are several different types of RNA, each having different ___________ in the cell.
Functions
The structure of RNA is similar to _____with a few small exceptions.
DNA
Most types of RNA, including mRNA, are _______-stranded and contain no complementary strand.
Single
Most types of RNA, including ______, are single-stranded and contain no complementary strand.
mRNA
Most types of RNA, including mRNA, are single-stranded and contain no ___________ strand.
Complementary
RNA contains ______, whereas DNA has _________
ribose; deoxyribose
Instead of the base ________, RNA contains the base _______.
Thymine; uracil
Instead of the base thymine, RNA contains the base uracil. This means that _________ will always pair up with uracil during the protein synthesis process.
Adenine
RNA is made of?
Ribose sugar
Phosphates
The bases A, U, C, G
The DNA strand is used to create?
RNA
mRNA (messenger)
tRNA (transfer)
rRNA (ribosomal)
What is mRNA?
Messenger RNA
What is tRNA
Transfer RNA
What is rRNA?
Ribosomal RNA
The gene of DNA is made into a ________ molecule that can be used to create a protein.
mRNA
The gene of DNA is made into a mRNA molecule that can be used to create a ________
Protein
DNA is written in three base groups called a _______
Triplet
RNA is written in three bases called _______
Codons
