Exam 1 Flashcards
What are the key components necessary for life?
Responsiveness
Growth
Reproduction
Homeostasis
Metabolism
Anabolism
Catabolism
The ability of an organism or system to adjust to changes in conditions
Responsiveness
Process of increasing in size
Growth
Process by which new organisms are generated
Reproduction
Steady state of body systems that living organisms maintain
Homeostasis
The sum of all anabolic and catabolic reactions that take place in the body
Metabolism
Assembly of more complex molecules from simpler molecules
Anabolism
Breaking down of more complex molecules into simpler molecules
Catabolism
What are the four requirements for human life?
Oxygen
Nutrients
Temperature
Atmospheric pressure
What is the correct level of oxygen for human life?
20%
Atmospheric air is only about ____ oxygen
20%
Oxygen is a key component of the chemical reactions that keep the body alive, including the reactions that produce ____.
ATP
_____ cells are especially sensitive to lack of oxygen because of their requirement for a high-and-steady production of ATP.
Brain
Brain cells are especially sensitive to lack of ______ because of their requirement for a high-and-steady production of ATP.
Oxygen
Brain death is likely within ____ minutes without oxygen
5
Death is likely within ___ minutes without oxygen
10
A ________ is a substance in foods and beverages that is essential to human survival.
Nutrient
What are the three basic classes of nutrients?
Water
Macro
Micro
What is the most critical nutrient?
Water
Depending on the environmental temperature and our state of health, we may only be able to survive for a few ____ without water
Days
The body’s functional chemicals are dissolved and transported in water, and the _______ reactions of life take place in water
Chemical
What is the largest component of cells, blood, and the fluid between cells?
Water
What is the largest component of cells?
Water
What is the largest component of blood?
Water
What is the largest component of the fluid between cells?
Water
Water makes up about ____ percent of an adult’s body mass
70
Water also helps regulate our internal _________
Temperature
Water cushions, protects, and lubricates _____ and many other body structure?
Joints
____nutrients are needed in great amounts
Macro
What are the three macronutrients?
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
______nutrients are needed in smaller amounts
Micro
What are the two micronutrients?
Vitamins and minerals
What is the narrow range of acceptable body temperature?
Just below to just above 37C (98.6F)
When body temperature rises well above or drops well below normal, certain proteins (enzymes) that facilitate chemical reactions lose their normal _______ and ability to _____ and the chemical reactions of metabolism cannot proceed
Structure; function
The body can respond effectively to ______-term exposure to heat or cold
Short
As sweat evaporates from skin, it removes some ______ energy from the body, cooling it.
Thermal
A force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another substance
Pressure
Pressure exerted by a mixture of gases (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) in the earth’s atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure
What two gases is atmospheric pressure mainly composed of?
Nitrogen and oxygen
_______ pressure is constantly pressing down on your body.
Atmospheric
Atmospheric pressure keeps ______ within your body; such as the gaseous nitrogen in body fluids, dissolved.
gases
What keeps blood gases dissolved in our bodies?
Atmospheric pressure
Our ability to _____ depends on a precise atmospheric pressure
Breathe
To take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide
Breathing
Altitude sickness occurs in part because the atmosphere at high altitudes exerts _____ pressure, reducing the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Less
What are some of the symptoms of altitude sickness?
Shortness of breath, confusion, headache, lethargy, and nausea.
______ is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger more complex substances, while _______ is the process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller simpler molecules.
Anabolism; catabolism
__________ is the force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another substance.
Pressure
______ requires energy; _______ releases energy
Anabolism; catabolism
The consumption of food and the subsequent conversion into energy.
Metabolism
Ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal and external environment.
Responsiveness
Formation of new organisms from parent organisms.
Reproduction
Actions of joints and muscles to propel a body as well as those of individual organs and individual cells.
Movement
The increase in body size.
Growth
the scientific study of the body’s structures.
Anatomy
The word “________” comes from a Greek root that means, “cut apart” or to “cut open.”
Anatomy
Human anatomy was first studied by observing the exterior of the body and and by observing injuries, such as the wounds of ________
Soldiers
When a body is _________, its structures are cut apart in order to observe their physical attributes and their relationships to one another.
Dissected
Gross anatomy, also called __________ anatomy, is the study of larger structures of the body that are visible without the aid of magnification.
Macroscopic
_______ anatomy, also called macroscopic anatomy, is the study of larger structures of the body that are visible without the aid of magnification.
Gross
________ anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen.
Regional
_________ anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function.
Systemic
Study of general form and superficial markings
Surface anatomy
The study of the structural changes of an individual from fertilization to adulthood
Developmental anatomy
________ anatomy studies structures that cannot be seen without magnification.
Microscopic
Micro- means “______,” and microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices.
Small
The study of cells
Cytology
The study of tissues
Histology
As the technology of __________ has advanced, anatomists have been able to observe smaller and smaller structures of the body, from slices of large structures like the heart, to the three-dimensional structures of large molecules in the body.
Microscopes
Science that studies the chemistry, biochemistry, and physics of the body’s functions
Human physiology
The term “___________,” comes from Ancient Greek, meaning “study of nature, origins.”
Physiology
Whereas anatomy is about ________, physiology is about _________.
Structure; function
Human _________ is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life
Physiology
Much of the study of physiology centers on the body’s tendency toward __________
Homeostasis
The functions of living cells (including the chemical and molecular levels)
Cell physiology
All aspects of the function of specific organ systems
Systemic physiology
The effects of diseases on organ or system functions
Pathological physiology or pathology
The heart is a contractile organ that pumps blood (_________) but it needs the vessels to transport blood (________ anatomy).
Physiology; systemic
the study of structures too small to be seen without a microscope
Microscopic anatomy
The study of cells
Cytology/cell physiology
the study of tissues, which make up organs
Histology
the study of anatomical structures that are visible to the naked eye
Gross anatomy
the study of external features that do not require dissection to see
Surface anatomy
the study of external and internal anatomy of one specific area of the body
Regional anatomy
the study of the structures that contribute to specific body systems
systemic anatomy/physiology
the study of embryos and the changes they undergo as they mature
Developmental anatomy
the study of the effects of diseases on organ or system functions
Pathological physiology
__________ anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen.
Regional
_________ anatomy is the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification.
Gross
_______ is the branch of biology concerned with the structure and function of plant and animal cells.
Cytology
_______ is the study of the disordered physiological processes that cause, result from, or are otherwise associated with a disease or injury
Pathophysiology
Study of general form and superficial markings
Surface anatomy
Study of all the superficial and internal features of a specific region of the body
Regional anatomy
Study of internal structure of individual cells
Cytology
Study of the structure of major organ systems
Systemic anatomy
Study of tissues, groups of specialized cells and cell products that work together to perform specific functions
Histology
What are the four components of the chemical level of organization?
Protons, neutrons, electrons
Atom
Molecule
Macromolecule
What are the subatomic particles that make up an atom?
Protons, neutrons, and electrons
What is the smallest unit of any element?
An atom
Atoms are made up of _______ particles
Subatomic
What are the chemical building blocks of all body structures?
Molecules
Two or more _____ combine to form a molecule via chemical bonds, such as water molecules, proteins, and sugars found in living things.
Atoms
What are the two components at the cellular level of organization?
Organelle
cells
Functioning units within a cell
Organelles
Smallest living unit
Cells
What are the four primary types of tissue?
Connective
Epithelial
Muscle
Nerve
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
Cardiac
Skeletal
Smooth
What are the three types of nervous tissue?
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
What are the types of epithelial tissue?
Lining of gastrointestinal tract and other hollow organs, skin surface
What are the three types of connective tissue?
Tendon
Bone
Fat and other soft padding tissue
Two or more different tissues working together to perform specific functions form an _____
Organ
Organs interacting to perform specific functions form _________
Organ systems
What are the 11 organ systems?
Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
What is included in the integumentary system?
Hair
Skin
Nails
The integumentary system’s primary function is to protect against environmental ___________, control body ___________, and to provide us with _________ input-information.
Hazards; temperature; sensory
What are the components of the skeletal system?
Cartilage, bones, joints
The skeletal system’s primary function is to provide ________, protect ________, store ________, and help in the formation of ______ cells.
Support; Tissues; Minerals; blood
What are the components of the muscular system?
Skeletal muscles and tendons
The muscular system’s primary function is to provide _______, ________, and _________ for other tissues.
Movement; protection; support
The muscular system is composed of the ______, ______, and ________ muscles (both axial and appendicular).
Cardiac; smooth; skeletal
What are the components of the nervous system?
Brain; spinal cord; peripheral nerves
The nervous system’s primary function is to direct immediate responses to ________, usually by coordinating the activities of other organ systems.
Simuli
The nervous system provides and interprets _______ information about internal and external conditions.
Sensory
What are the components of the endocrine system?
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Testes/Ovaries
The endocrine system’s primary function is to direct the long-term changes in activities of other organ systems via the use of?
Hormones
The endocrine system is composed of the various endocrine ________ and _________ that are secreted from said glands
Glands; hormones
What are the components of the cardiovascular system?
Heart and blood vessels
The circulatory/cardiovascular system’s primary function is to transport _____ and dissolved materials including ______, _______, _______ and _______ throughout the body.
Cells; Nutrients; wastes; oxygen; carbon dioxide
What are the components of the lymphatic system?
Thymus
Spleen
Lymph nodes
Lymph vessels
The lymphatic/immune system’s primary function is to defend against _________ and to help return __________ to the bloodstream.
Infection; tissue fluid
What are the components of the respiratory system?
Nasal passage
Trachea
Lungs
The respiratory system’s primary function is to deliver air to sites in the lungs where __________ occurs between the air and bloodstream, and it helps to produce ________ for communication.
Gas exchange; sound
What are the components of the digestive system?
Mouth
Teeth
Tongue
Salivary glands
Pharynx
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Stomach
Pancreas
Small and large intestine
Anus
The digestive system’s primary function is to process ________ and absorb __________.
Food; nutrients
What are the components of the urinary system?
Kidneys
Ureters
Bladder
Urethra
The urinary system’s primary function is to excrete waste products from the _______; it also helps to control __________ by regulating the volume of urine produced
Blood; water balance
What are the components of the male reproductive system?
Testes
Penis
What are the components of the female reproductive system?
Ovaries
Uterus
Mammary glands
The reproductive system’s primary function is to produce _____cells (sperm and egg cells) as well as sex hormones like __________, _________, and ___________.
Sex; Testosterone; estrogen; Progesterone
Which organ system protects against environmental hazards and controls body temperature?
Integumentary
which organ system Provides support, protect tissues, store minerals, and help in the formation of blood cells
Skeletal
which organ system Produces male and female sex cells as well as any related hormones.
Reproductive
Which organ system Excretes waste products from the blood, and help to control water balance
Urinary
Which organ system Provides movement, protection, and support for other tissues.
Muscular
Which organ system Directs immediate responses to stimuli, and provides and interprets sensory information
Nervous
Which organ system Processes food and absorb nutrients
Digestive
Which organ system Defends against infection and disease and helps to return tissue fluid to the bloodstream
Lymphatic
Which organ system Directs the long-term changes in activities of other organ systems via the use of hormones.
Endocrine
Which organ system Transports cells and dissolved materials including nutrients, wastes, oxygen, and more
Cardiovascular
The
__________ system delivers oxygen and nutrients throughout the body.
Cardiovascular
This system is responsible for secreting hormones that help to regulate various bodily processes.
Endocrine
The control of water balance and elimination of waste from blood is carried out by the
____________
system.
Urinary
This system detects and processes sensory information throughout the body.
Nervous
A state of internal balance or stable internal environment
Homeostasis
What is the normal range for human body temperature?
98.6-101F
Homeo means _______ as stasis means ________
Similar; standing
The physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
The physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
The physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
The physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
The physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
Set point
The restricted set of values that is optimally healthful and stable
Normal range
The component in a feedback mechanism system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range
Effector
Homeostatic mechanism that tends to stabilize an upset in the body’s physiological condition by preventing an excessive response to a stimulus
Negative feedback system
Mechanism that intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition in response to a stimulus
Positive feedback mechanism
___________ must be maintained in order to survive.
Homeostasis
Malfunction of organ systems occurs when ___________ responses are overwhelmed, resulting in disease.
Homeostatic
Homeostasis is maintained by interdependent _________ systems functioning together.
Organ
What are the most common negative feedbacks?
Thermoregulation
Blood sugar regulation
Osmoregulation
Blood pressure regulation
Erythropoiesis
A component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value
Sensor/receptor
The component in a feedback system that compares the value to the normal range
Control center
The component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range.
Effector
Mechanism that intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition in response to a stimulus
Positive feedback
A
_________
is the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates.
Set point
__________ feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it.
Positive
Is blood glucose regulation positive or negative feedback mechanism?
Negative
Is erythropoiesis a positive or negative feedback mechanism?
Negative
Is thermoregulation a positive or negative feedback mechanism?
Negative
Is blood pressure regulation a positive or negative feedback mechanism?
Negative
Is lactation a positive or negative feedback mechanism?
Positive
Is blood clotting a positive or negative feedback mechanism?
Positive
Is childbirth a positive or negative feedback mechanism?
Positive
______ anatomy considers large structures such as the brain.
Gross
The organization of the body often is
discussed in terms of ____ distinct levels of
increasing complexity, from the smallest
chemical building blocks to a unique
human organism.
6
____________ reactions are building reactions, and they consume energy.
Anabolic
Anabolic reactions are building reactions, and they _________ energy.
Consume
__________
reactions break materials down and release energy.
Catabolic
Catabolic
reactions ____________ materials and release energy.
Break down
Metabolism includes both __________ and _________ reactinos
Anabolic; catabolic
Runners demonstrate two characteristics of living humans—___________ and __________
Responsiveness; movement
In a negative feedback loop, a _______—a deviation from a set point—is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to homeostasis.
Stimulus
In a negative feedback loop, a stimulus—a deviation from a ________—is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to homeostasis.
Set point
In a negative feedback loop, a stimulus—a deviation from a set point—is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to ___________
Homeostasis
A positive feedback loop results
in a change in the body’s _________, rather than a return to ______________
Status; homeostasis
What are some examples of a positive feedback loop?
Blood clotting using platelets, oxytocin, chronic heart failure (CHF)
The larynx is part of which organ system?
Respiratory
The trachea is part of which organ system?
Respiratory
The lungs are part of which organ system?
Respiratory
The diaphragm is part of which organ system?
Respiratory
The descending aorta is part of which organ system?
Cardiovascular/circulatory
Your carotid arteries are part of which organ system?
Cardiovascular/circulatory
The inferior vena cava is part of which organ system?
Cardiovascular/circulatory
The external jugular vein is part of which organ system?
Cardiovascular/circulatory
The internal jugular vein is part of which organ system?
Cardiovascular/circulatory
The hard palate is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The soft palate is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The epiglottis is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The esophagus is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The stomach is part of which digestive system?
Digestive
The small intestine is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The large intestine is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The anus is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The liver is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The gallbladder is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The pancreas is part of which organ system?
Digestive
The thyroid is part of which organ system?
Endocrine
The spleen is part of which organ system?
Lymphatic
The thymus is part of which organ system?
Lymphatic
The kidneys are part of which organ system?
Urinary
The ureter is part of which organ system?
Urinary
The bladder is part of which organ system?
Urinary
The urethra is part of which organ system?
Urinary
The ovaries are part of which organ system?
Female reproductive
The uterine horns are part of which organ system?
Female reproductive
The genital papilla are part of which organ system?
Female reproductive
The testes are part of which organ system?
Male reproductive
The vas deferens/ductus deferens are part of which organ system?
Male reproductive
The penis is part of which organ system?
Male reproductive
The scrotal sac is part of which organ system?
Male reproductive
A system that regulates it’s internal environment in order to maintain a stable,constant condition
Homeostasis
The body senses an internal change and activates mechanisms that reverse that change. Negative feedback is the usual process of maintaining homeostasis.
Negative feedback
Occurs when the output of a system acts to enhance the changes to the input of the system (contractions during childbirth continue to increase until baby is born).
Positive feedback
3 interdependent components: receptor, control center and effector
Homeostatic control
Blood sugar level is too high. The body cannot make enough insulin.
A signal to which an organism responds
Stimulus
Sense change and send signals to control center (such as thermal or pain receptors in skin)
Receptor
Receives and processes the information supplied by the receptor and sends out commands
Control center
Provides the means for the control center’s response to the stimulus
Effector
The portion of the brain that maintains the body’s internal balance (homeostasis).
Hypothalamus
A chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin. The negative feedback loop does not work and blood-sugar levels cannot be controlled by the body.
Type 1 Diabetes
Which subatomic particles make up the nucleus of an atom?
Protons and Neutrons
Elements are _____ substances that cannot be broken down through chemical reactions
Pure
An element is determined by the ________ number (or number of protons) in the nucleus
Atomi
The atomic number is the number of _____ in the nucleus
Protons
Protons are _____, neutrons are ______, and electrons are _______
Positive; neutral; negative
The nucleus of an atom contains ______ and ______, and _____ orbit the outside.
Protons; neutrons; electrons
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Atomic number
Where can an element’s atomic number be found on the periodic table?
Top left hand corner of the element
What is the number in the top left hand corner of an element on the periodic table?
Atomic number
The weight of both protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is the?
Atomic mass
What is the number in the top right hand corner of an element on the periodic table?
Atomic mass
Atomic mass= _______ number (number of ____________) + number of _________
Atomic; protons; neutrons
Carbon 12 is a _______ carbon
Normal
Carbon 13 is a slightly ______ carbon than carbon 12
Heavier
Carbon 14 is a _________ carbon (compared to carbon 12 and carbon 13)
Radioactive
Carbon 12, a normal carbon, has __ protons and __ neutrons
6; 6
Carbon 13, a slightly heavier carbon than carbon 12, has __ protons and __ neutrons
6; 7
Carbon 14, a radioactive carbon (as compared to carbon 12 and 13), has __ protons and __ neutrons
6; 8
_________ carbon gives off subatomic particles and electromagnetic energy or radiation.
Radioactive
Atomic _____ varies between isotopes, but atomic _______ does not
weight; number
Atomic weight varies between ________, but atomic number does not
Isotopes
Electron shells, or ___________, contain a set number of electrons
valence rings
Electron shells are also known as
Valence rings
Valence rings are also known as electron _______
Shells
Electron shells, or valance rings, contain a set number of _________
Electrons
The first valence/electron shell can contain up to __ electrons
2
The second valence/electron shell can contain up to __ electrons
8
What is the octet rule?
The first shell must be filled before electrons can reside in the second, which must be filled before electrons can reside in the third
Hydrogen has __ electron
1
Helium has __ electrons
2
Lithium has ___ electrons
3
Neon has ___ electrons
10
Argon has __ electrons
18
Sodium has __ electrons
11
What is the valance of sodium, which has 11 electrons?
1, because there is one electron in the valence (outer) shell
Is sodium a stable atom with a full valence shell? It has 11 electrons.
No! An atom without a full valence shell will create chemical bonds. Because sodium has a valence shell that is not full, it needs to form chemical bonds to become stable
Carbon has 6 electrons. What is its valence?
4
Where are protons located?
Nucleus
Where are neutrons located?
Nucleus
Where are electrons located?
Electron cloud, valence shells
Atoms are stable when their outermost electron shell (valence shell) is full. To make this happen, atoms can ______, _______ or _______ electrons
Donate; accept; share
Atoms are stable when their outermost electron shell (valence shell) is full. To make this happen, atoms can donate, accept, or share electrons. This process is called
Chemical bonding
Everything that has mass and takes up space
Matter
The atomic nucleus is more than ____% of the mass, but less than 1% of the _______ of an atom
99; volume
The third electron shell has a maximum of ___ electrons
18
If an atom has 2 protons and 2 electrons, its overall charge is ___
0
Carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. What is its mass number?
12
Atoms of the same element always have the same number of ________
Protons
Same element with different number of neutrons
Isotope
An atom with atomic number 6 has how many protons?
6
An atom with atomic number 80 has how many protons?
80
The numbers of ______ in the nucleus affects the mass
Particles
The numbers of particles in the nucleus affects the atom’s _______
Mass
A proton is equal to how many mass units?
1
A neutron is equal to how many mass units?
1
The total of what two numbers equals the mass number?
Proton and neutron mass units
The _______ number is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
Atomic
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. This determines the element’s _________.
Chemical identity
An isotope is determined by _______ or ________ neutrons
Adding; subtracting
Neutrons are _______ charged
Neutrally
Protons are _______ charged
Positively
Electrons are ________ charged
Negatively
The _____ number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus
Mass
The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This determines whether the atom is a/an __________.
Isotope
Electrons form ________ between atoms, forming new compounds.
Chemical bonds
What type of reaction is this?
A + B–>AB
Synthesis reaction
AB–>A+B
Decomposition reaction
A+BC–>AB+C
Exchange reaction
A/n __________ is a catalyst composed of protein or ribonucleic acid (RNA), which work by lowering the level of energy that needs to be invested in a chemical reaction.
Enzyme
The one or more substances that enter into a reaction
Reactant
Chemical reactions that absorb more energy than they release
Endergonic
The one or more substances produced by a chemical reaction
Product
Chemical reactions that release more energy than they absorb
Exergonic
_______ energy is the form of energy powering any type of matter in motion
Kinetic
_____ energy is the energy of position; or the energy matter possesses because of the positioning or structure of its components
Potential
A hydrolysis reaction is a _________ reaction that involves water
decomposition
Water is an essential _______
Reactant
Dehydration synthesis reactions build _________ up while losing _________
Molecules; water
In a dehydration synthesis, monomers are joined by removal of ___ from one side and removal of ____ from the other at the side of bond formation.
OH; H
During dehydration synthesis, monomers are joined by ________of OH from one side and __________ of H from the other at the site of bond formation
Removal; Removal
Hydrolysis reactions _____ water (H2O) to break chemical bonds
Add
During hydrolysis, monomers are released by the addition of a ______ molecule, adding OH to one monomer and H to the other.
Water
During hydrolysis, monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, adding ___ to one monomer and __ to the other.
OH; H
During hydrolysis, monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, ______ OH to one monomer and H to the other.
Adding
Water has a _____ heat capacity
High
Water is a heat _____
Sink
Water is an excellent ______
Solvent
Water’s polar nature causes the ___________ of salts and creates __________
Dissolution; electrolytes
When salt is added to water, salt crystals are formed by ______ bonds between sodium and chloride ions
Ionic
When salt is added to water, salt crystals are formed by ionic bonds between _______ and _______ ions
Sodium; chloride
Water is a good solvent because it is a ______ molecule
Polar
Water mixes with a solute, a dissolved salt or other substance, resulting in a _________
Solution
When adding salt to water, polar water molecules break the ______bonds between Na and Cl, allowing water to dissolve salt (NaCl) into Na+ and Cl- ions.
Ionic
When adding salt to water, polar water molecules break the ionic bonds between ___ and ___, allowing water to dissolve salt (NaCl) into Na+ and Cl- ions.
Na; Cl
When adding salt to water, polar water molecules break the ionic bonds between Na and Cl, allowing water to dissolve salt (_____) into Na+ and Cl- ions.
NaCl
When adding salt to water, polar water molecules break the ionic bonds between Na and Cl, allowing water to dissolve salt (NaCl) into ___ and ___ ions.
Na+; Cl-
When dissolving salt in water, the more-_______ ends of the water molecules interact with the Na+, and the more-________ ends of water molecules interact with the Cl-.
Positive; Negative
_______ substances and ______ molecules can dissolve in water.
Charged; polar
Charged substances and polar molecules can dissolve in water. They are ________ substances
Hydrophilic
________ ions and _______ molecules both can be attracted to the opposite charges on water molecules.
Charged; polar
Charged ions and polar molecules dissolve or mix with water _______
Easily
What are some examples of charged ions and polar molecules, which dissolve easily in water?
Sugar - Glucose
Some dietary molecules
All salts (substances with charged ions)
________ refers to how much of a solute can dissolve in water
Solubility
Chemicals that are not-__________ and non-_________ do not have any charges for water to interact with.
Charged; polar
Chemicals that are not charged and non-polar _______ water, or push it away, so they do not dissolve or mix with water easily
Repel
What are some examples of chemicals that are not charged and non-polar, that don’t mix with water easily?
Oils and fats - lipids
non-polar molecules
A substance, usually a salt, that dissolves
Solute
A fluid in which another substance dissolves
Solvent
A uniform mixture of solute and solvent
Solution
Ions dissolved in water conduct electricity, necessary for all body systems?
Electrolyte
Solution of salt and water. Normal _______ has an equal concentration to the blood
Saline
Which two types of chemical reactions involve the creation or consumption of water?
Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis
The formation of larger molecules from smaller reactants, accompanied by the loss of a water molecule.
Dehydration synthesis
The chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.
Hydrolysis
When adding salt to water to get salt-water, which ingredient is the solvent?
Water
Hydrophobic molecules tend to be _______ by water
Repelled
A _________ is a substance that is dissolved in a fluid to form a solution. The fluid is referred to as a ________ and is usually water. The entire liquid mixture is called the __________.
Solute; solvent; solution
Water is a solvent that dissolves ______ compounds
Ionic
How does water dissolve ionic compounds?
By separating them into negatively and positively charged ions
An ______ is an example of an ionic compound that can be dissolved by water.
Acid
What happens when an acid is mixed with water?
Hydrogen ions are released from the compound when dissolved in water.
A ______ is ALSO an ionic compound that can be dissolved in water.
Base
A base dissolved in water will release an abundance of negatively-charged ___________ ions
Hydroxide (OH-)
An acid always has a greater concentration of ____ ions than _____ ions
H+ (Hydrogen); OH- (Hydroxide)
A base always has a greater concentration of ______ ions than _____ ions
OH- (Hydroxide); H+ (Hydrogen)
If a substance has equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions, the solution is ______ (like pure water)
Neutral
An acid is an ionic compound that releases many ____ ions when dissolved in water
H+ (Hydrogen)
A base is an ionic compound that releases many _____ ions when dissolved in water
OH- (Hydroxide)
The H in pH stands for
Hydrogen
pH is the measure of _____________ in a solution
Free hydrogen ions
The pH of a solution tells us whether the solution is an _____ or a ______
Acid; base
Each whole number decrease in pH represents a _____ increase in H+
10x
If coffee has a pH of 5, what is the increase in h+? Is it acidic or alkaline?
100x (10x*10x), down 2 from 7; acidic
If baking soda has a pH of 9, what is the change in h+ concentration?
100x decrease, up 2 from 7 (alkaline)
To function normally, body fluids have to maintain a pH of ____-______
6.5-7.5
What is the normal pH of blood?
7.4
The body controls pH by the use of different ________
Buffers
Substances that neutralize other acids and bases in solutions to prevent pH swings
Buffers
What is the safe blood pH range?
7.35-7.45
pH balance is important because pH affects the functioning of _______ (enzymes, transport proteins, and motor proteins.
Proteins
pH classification of gastric juices
Strongly acidic
pH classification of tomato juice?
Strongly acidic
pH classification of human urine
Weakly acidic
pH classification of pure water
Neutral
pH classification of human blood
Weakly alkaline
pH classification of hand soap
Strongly alkaline
pH classification of household bleach
Strongly alkaline
What would we call a human blood pH of 7.2?
Acidosis
What would we call a human blood pH of 7.5?
Alkalosis
Catalyze (enable) chemical reactions by decreasing the activation energy they need to get started
Enzymes
Proper _____ function is required for life
Protein
What happens to proteins when the pH in the body changes too much?
They denature (change shape)
A denatured protein cannot ________
Function
Acids are molecules that can ______ a hydrogen ion
Donate
Bases are molecules that can ______ a hydrogen ion
Hydrogen
Any molecule that can donate a hydrogen ion to the solution is an ______
Acid
______ (also called ______) are molecules which can accept a H+ ion out of the solution
Bases; alkalines
Extracellular _______ proteins maintain blood pH by absorbing or releasing hydrogen ions
Buffer
Extracellular buffer proteins maintain blood pH by absorbing or releasing ________ ions
Hydrogen
Extracellular buffer proteins maintain stable pH by acting as both a ____ and an _____
Base; acid
Where are extracellular buffer proteins located?
Free floating in blood and plasma
Excessive acidity of the blood and other body fluids is known as _______
Acidosis
A/an _______ is a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. A/an ________ is a substance that releases hydroxyl ions (OH-) in solution or that accepts H+ already present in a solution.
Acid; base/alkali
Organic molecules containing carbon-carbon (C-C) and carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds.
Organic molecules
Organic molecules contain _______-_______ and ________-_________ bonds.
Carbon-carbon; carbon-hydrogen
Inorganic molecules do not contain C-C or C-H bonds. They contain any other atoms.
Inorganic molecules
Inorganic molecules do not contain ________-________ or ________-_______ bonds. They contain any other atoms.
Inorganic molecules
What are a few examples of organic molecules?
Ethanol and table sugar. They contain C-C and C-H bonds
What are a few examples of inorganic molecules?
Ammonia and Oxygen gas - they do NOT contain C-C or C-H bonds.
What percentage of our body is made up of oxygen?
65%
What percentage of our body is made of carbon?
18%
What percentage of our body is made up of hydrogen?
10%
What percentage of our body is made up of nitrogen?
3%
The most abundant elements in the human body are?
- Oxygen
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Nitrogen
The most abundant elements in the human body (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen) all come together to make what 4 major types of organic molecules?
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
______ compounds are found in ALL living things
Organic
ALL organic compounds contain _____
Carbon
Why is carbon so special?
No other element matches Carbon’s bonding versatility
Atomic number of carbon
6
Every atom of carbon has ___ protons in the nucleus
6
Carbon is an electrically ______ atom
Neutral
Where are all of the electrons located in carbon?
2 in core
4 in valence
Accompanying the four outer electrons of carbon are four _______
Bonding sites
Carbon’s four bonding sites help it to form _____ bonds with many other elements
Covalent
Carbon atoms often form covalent bonds with other _____ atoms
Carbon
Small organic molecules
Monomers
Organic monomers are chemically bonded atoms that always include?
Carbon
Along with carbon, organic monomers usually include what other elements as well?
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
T/F: Organic monomers often bond to each other
True
A string of monomers is called a?
Polymer
The process of joining organic monomers together to form a polymer
Polymerization
Polymers may be made of ______ monomers, or the same repeating monomer.
Different
Many organic polymers in the cells of living organisms are so long, they are called
Macromolecules
DNA is an example of what type of polymer?
Macromolecule
Macromolecules can contain hundreds or thousands of _____
Atoms
What are the four types of organic macromolecules?
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
A small subunit molecule
Monomer
A chain of monomer subunits that repeat in a pattern. A large molecule made up of repeating monomer subunits.
Polymer
Large molecules that can be monomers or polymers.
Macromolecules
What monomer subunit forms nucleic acid?
Nucleotide
What polymer macromolecule does nucleotide form?
Nucleic acid
What monomer subunit forms proteins?
Amino acids
What polymer macromolecule does amino acid form?
Proteins
What monomer subunit forms carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides
What polymer macromolecule do monosaccharides form?
Carbohydrates
Lipids are considered a monomer subunit, but they are not a _____ and therefore do not form macromolecules.
Polymer
A carbohydrate is an organic ________
Macromolecule
Carbohydrates are large macromolecules containing the element _______
Carbon
The “hydrate” part of carbohydrates is due to them containing a __________ atom
Hydrogen
What is the chemical formula for carbohydrates (the proportion)?
CH2O
Molecules of carbon will always have equal numbers of _______ and _____ atoms, and twice as many _______ atoms
Carbon; Oxygen; Hydrogen
__________ are the main fuel source from which all living things get their energy
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates don’t always have the same overall _______
Structure
Carbohydrates are classified as either _______ or ________ based on their chemical structure
Simple; complex
Simple carbohydrates are sugars, referred to as ___________
Saccharides
_______ carbohydrates are sugars, referred to as saccharides
Simple
Simple carbohydrates are _______, referred to as saccharides
Sugars
A saccharide can be made of one sugar molecule, called a ___________, or two sugar molecules, called a ___________
Monosaccharide; disaccharide
What is an example of a monosaccharide?
Glucose
Glucose is a monosaccharide because it has only ____ sugar molecule
One
Simple sugars like _____ are the quickest form of energy
Glucose
Why is glucose a quick form of energy?
Because our cells can break it down easily, it is small. A monosaccharide.
Words ending in -ose, are typically
Sugars
What are some types of monosaccharides besides glucose?
Fructose
Galactose
Dextrose
When glucose and fructose are chemically bonded together, we get a ______
Disaccharide
What is the result of bonding glucose and fructose together?
Sucrose
What kind of saccharide is sucrose?
Disaccharide
Disaccharides also end in -ose because they are ______ molecules
Sugar
Complex carbohydrates are also known as _________
Polysaccharides
____________ are very long chains of monosaccharides chemically bonded together
Polysaccharides
An entire polysaccharide is referred to as a _____
Polymer
an individual molecule within a polysaccharide chain is referred to as a ________
Monomer
Examples of polysaccharides
Cellulose
Starches
Glycogen
Cellulose is found in all _______
Plants
Structural carbohydrate that is found in the cell wall of every plant cell
Cellulose
______ are found in many of the foods we eat, such as potatoes and corn
Starches
Starch is also found in grains, such as ______ and ______
Wheat; Rice
The body’s digestive system breaks down starch molecules into ________ molecules to fuel the activities of all of our cells
Glucose
Extra glucose molecules that the body doesn’t immediately need for energy, are stored as polysaccharides called ________ in the liver or skeletal muscles
Glycogen
Extra glucose molecules that the body doesn’t immediately need for energy, are stored as polysaccharides called glycogen in the _____or ______ muscles
Liver; skeletal
Energy molecules, main source of dietary energy
Monosaccharides
Carbohydrates that function in cell-to-cell recognition are called
Disaccharides
Carbohydrates that function in structure support are called ___________
Polysaccharides
Protein is responsible for building the majority of body tissues, including:
Hair
Bone
Muscle
Cartilage
Cells that aren’t tissue cells generally have a cell ______ with protein ________ to allow proteins to travel into or out of the cell.
Membrane; channels
Antibodies are also known as?
Immunoglobulins
What are immunoglobulins (antibodies) made of?
Proteins
_________, made from proteins, are an important part of the immune system
Immunoglobulins
________ “label” foreign substances in the body so that the immune system can identify and destroy them
Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
All living organisms use regulatory proteins called ______ to speed up chemical reactions in the body
Enzymes
All proteins are _________ _____________
Organic macromolecules
In addition to carbon, proteins also contain what other three elements?
Hydrogen; oxygen; nitrogen
What is the protein building block, or, monomer?
Amino acids
All amino acids have an ________ group on one side, and a ________ group on the other
Amino; carboxyl
Each amino acid has a unique side chain called the?
R-group
The _______ group of an amino acid is made up of one or more atoms that distinguish one amino acid from another
R
The R group of an amino acid is made up of one or more ______ that distinguish one amino acid from another
atoms
How many different possible R groups are there?
20
There are only 20 possible R groups, how many different amino acids are there?
20
A protein is created when __________ chemically bond to each other
Amino acids
The bonds that connect amino acids to make a protein are called _______ bonds
Peptide
Small protein molecules are sometimes referred to as ___________ or __________
Protein polymers; peptides
Like building blocks, amino acids can join together to form protein polymers called ________
Polypeptides
Changing the ______ of an amino acid sequence, or the ________ of the polypeptide, is what creates countless different proteins
Order; length
A protein’s final ______ is critical to the function it performs
Shape
Heat or chemicals can change a protein’s shape, but NOT it’s amino acid _________
Order
A change in a protein’s shape can cause it to lose its ______
Functionality
Is denaturing reversible?
Usually no
Egg whites are pure _______
Protein
Enzymes _________ chemical reactions
speed up
How do protein function in our structure and protection?
Keratin and collagen in our hair, skin, nails, etc.
How do proteins function in our movement?
Muscles!
Where do humans get protein?
Meat (made of muscles), nuts, etc.
Change in 3D shape of protein
Denaturation
What are the ways that a protein can become denatured?
Temperature, pH, or salt changes render a protein useless.
What would happen to a human if their proteins were denatured?
Illness or death
______ are proteins that enable chemical reactions to take place in the body. They are necessary for life.
Enzymes
Enzymes only function within a narrow _______, _____, and _______ range
Temperature; pH; osmolality
Enzymes function by lowering the ________________ for a reaction.
Activation energy
_________ catalyze (speed up or enable) chemical reactions but they are NOTused up in the process.
Enzymes
__________decrease the activation energy of a reaction, so it needs less of a kick-start.
Enzymes
Enzymes are specific to one chemical reaction. The enzyme is like a lock and the _________ are like a key.
Reactants
Substrates bind to the _______ of an enzyme
Active site
______ bind to the active site of an enzyme
Substrates
Lipids are an integral part of every cell _________
Membrane
Lipids are part of the _______ membrane that is the boundary of every cell
Phospholipid
____ provide long-term energy storage, and insulation in living organisms
Fats
What are some types of lipids besides fat?
Oils, waxes, steroids
What are some examples of steroid molecules?
Cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen
Lipids do not dissolve in _______
Water
All lipids are _______ ___________
Organic macromolecules
What elements do lipids contain other than Carbon?
Hydrogen, oxygen
In lipids, the typical monomer is called a ____ _____
Fatty acid
A fatty acid is a chain of ______ atoms attached to each other (also with hydrogen atoms)
Carbon
Carbon can form up to ___ covalent bonds with other atoms
4
When each carbon atom forms two single bonds with adjacent carbon atoms, and another two bonds with adjacent hydrogen atoms, we call this a __________________
Saturated fatty acid
What are saturated fatty acids made up of?
Carbon atoms forming adjacent bonds with other carbon atoms and hydrogen, making a long chain
Saturated fatty acids are ______ molecules that can pack tightly together
Straight
_________ are straight molecules that can pack tightly together
Saturated fatty acids
Saturated fats are usually ____ at room temperature
Solid
What are some examples of saturated fats?
Lard and butter
Unsaturated fats are usually ______ at room temperature
Liquid
____________ have one or more DOUBLE covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
Unsaturated
Why can’t unsaturated fatty acids pack together tightly?
They are kinked due to the one or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms
A lipid polymer is more commonly called a?
Triglyceride
A triglyceride is formed when three fatty acids bond to a _______ molecule
Glyceride
A triglyceride is saturated if it contains ONLY ________ fatty acids
Saturated
A triglyceride is unsaturated if it contains ANY_________ fatty acids
Unsaturated
All lipids, or fats, are _____ (water-fearing)
Hydrophobic
What are a few different types of lipids?
Sterols, phospholipids, triglycerides
What are a few types of sterols?
Cholesterol, steroid hormones
A nucleic acid is an _________ ____________
Organic macromolecule
What are the two types of nucleic acids?
RNA (Ribonucleic acid), and DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
In living organisms, DNA is the main component of __________
Chromatin
Chromatin will condense into the familiar chromosome shape prior to ______
Cell division
The DNA in chromosomes is organized in a specific order that makes up an organism’s _______
Genes
_____ contain the directions for every function, trait, and activity in a living organism.
Genes
DNA contains instructions for:
Everything, really, but mostly growth, reproduction, and heredity
_____ is integrally involved in building proteins by assembling their amino acids in the correct order.
RNA
______ are responsible for all cellular functions in living organisms.
Proteins
What atoms do nucleic acids contain, besides carbon?
Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and also phosphorus
Both DNA and RNA are made up of monomers called ______
Nucleotides
All nucleotides contain ___ compounds
3
All nucleotides contain a P group, which contains?
Phosphorus
All nucleotides contain a 5 carbon sugar called?
Pentose
The specific pentose sugar in RNA is called?
Ribose
The pentose sugar in DNA contains one less _______ than the ribose in RNA, giving it the name:
Deoxyribose
Nucleotides have a weak base that always contains ________
Nitrogen
Nucleotides have a base containing nitrogen, referred to as a _______ base
Nitrogenous
What are the three components of nucleotides?
A P (phosphorus) group, a pentose sugar called ribose, and a nitrogenous base
The nucleotides in DNA contain 1 of ____ possible nitrogenous bases
4
What are the four possible nitrogenous bases of a DNA nucleotide?
Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine
What are the four possible nitrogenous bases of an RNA nucleotide?
Adenine
Uracil
Cytosine
Guanine
Which nitrogenous bases differentiate RNA and DNA?
Only DNA has Thymine, and only RNA has Uracil
How do nucleotide monomers assemble into macromolecules?
The phosphorus group of one nucleotide bonds to the pentose sugar in another nucleotide
A string of nucleotides forms a _____ _______ _______
Nucleic acid polymer
RNA is a ______-stranded nucleic acid
Single
DNA is a _____-stranded nucleic acid
Double
The two strands in DNA are linked by _____ bonds
Hydrogen
How are the two strands of DNA connected?
By hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases of each strand, forming a helix
___, Adenosine Triphosphate, is the energy currency of the cell.
ATP
ATP, _______________ is the energy currency of the cell.
Adenosine triphosphate
The energy currency of the cell
ATP
ATP: Adenosine is bonded to a chain of 3 _________ groups.
Phosphate
The bond between the ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and the final phosphate group is incredibly ______ energy, and this is the bond that is broken.
High
Where does the body get the energy it needs to recharge ADP?
From breaking down foods consumed in our diet. From breaking down stores of fat, polysaccharides, and other energy molecules.
In DNA, nucleotide bonding forms a compound with a characteristic shape known as a(n) ________.
Double helix
A
__________
is an organic molecule composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Protein/polypeptide
Monomer subunit of nucleic acid
Nucleotides
Monomer subunit of polypeptides/proteins
Amino acids
Monomer subunit of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Monomer subunit of lipids
Not a polymer
A _________ is a form of lipid that provides most of our dietary lipids.
Triglyceride
