Exam 2 Flashcards
_______ cells come in a variety of different sizes and shapes, and all have specific functions.
Human
Human cells come in a variety of sizes and shapes, and all have specific ________
Functions
Cells are the smallest unit of ____ and can perform many functions to maintain homeostasis.
Life
Cells are the smallest unit of life and can perform many functions to maintain ____________
Homeostasis
Who was the first person to discover cells using a microscope?
Robert Hooke
Robert hook proposed ________, which has three parts.
Cell theory
How many parts does cells theory have?
Three
What are the three parts to cell theory?
- All living things are made of cells
- The cell performs all functions necessary for life.
- All cells come from preexisting cells.
Humans are _______, meaning they have a membrane-bound nucleus.
Eukaryotic
Most cells have ___ nucleus
One
The nucleus is the _______ center of the cell
Control
The _______ holds the genetic material of the cell (DNA)
Nucleus
The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear _________ with pores
Membrane
Inside the nucleus is a nucleolus where _______ is made
rRNA
Inside the nucleus is a ________ where rRNA is made.
Nucleolus
The _____________ is connected to the nuclear membrane
Rough ER
The _____ ER is studded with ribosomes
Rough
Which ER is studded with ribosomes?
Rough
Which ER is responsible for the synthesis and modification of proteins that are for export?
Rough
Which ER lacks ribosomes?
Smooth
Which ER is responsible for making phospholipids for the cell membrane or steroid lipids for hormones?
Smooth
In some cells (muscle), the _______ ER can store calcium
Smooth
What is smooth endoplasmic reticulum responsible for?
Making phospholipids for the cell membrane or steroid lipids for hormones
Smooth ER lacks _______
Ribosomes
The site of protein synthesis in a cell
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are made of a small and large ribosomal unit made in the _________
Nucleolus
Proteins made by fixed _________ are usually exported as part of a membrane.
Ribosomes
Proteins made by free ribosomes usually stay in the _________
Cytoplasm
The golgi apparatus receives products from the ___________________
Endoplasmic reticulum
The golgi apparatus has ____ sides; incoming and exiting
Two
The _____________ modifies, sorts, and ships the products
Golgi apparatus
Exported products from the golgi apparatus will travel by vesicles to the __________ and fuse with it releasing their products.
Cell membrane
Lysosomes come from the ______
Golgi
________ contain digestive enzymes for ridding the cell of old organelles or pathogens
Lysosomes
________ can also be used for apoptosis under some conditions
Lysosomes
Lysosomes can sometimes be used for _________ under some conditions
Apoptosis
A programed cell death, sometimes called “cell suicide” that occurs when a cell is damaged, infected with a virus, or becoming cancerous.
Apoptosis
_______ are used for energy production in the cell
Mitochondria
The powerhouse of the cell
Mitochondria
Site of cellular respiration
Mitochondria
The mitochondria makes ___% of the ATP a cell uses
95
The ________ make 95% of the ATP a cell uses
Mitochondria
The inner membrane of ____________ perform oxidative phosphorylation
Mitochondria
Making ATP with the electron transport chain is called:
Oxidative phosphorylation
Mitochondria are self-_________
Replicating
Mitochondria have their own DNA and their own _________ to make needed proteins
Ribosomes
Mitochondria are present in cells that have a high _______ need
Energy
Many cells that have a high energy need have __________ of mitochondria
Thousands
Peroxisomes perform many __________ in cells
Functions
Peroxisomes have a _______ metabolism
Lipid
Peroxisomes are responsible for chemical ____________, like alcohol
Detoxification
Enzymes in __________ are used for making H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) and then reducing it to water.
Peroxisomes
In cells, enzymes in peroxisomes are used for making H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) and then reducing it to water. This reduces ________ stress on the cell from free radicls
Oxidative
The cytoskeleton functions in _________
Cell support, cell movement, cell division, and transportation inside the cells
What are the three fibrous proteins of the cytoskeleton?
Microtubules
Intermediate filaments
Microfilaments
Support and maintain organelle position
Microtubules
Responsible for cell shape and support
Intermediate filaments
Responsible for cell movement
Microfilaments
Centrioles make _________
Microtubules
_________________ help separate chromosomes during mitosis
Microtubules
Microtubules make up ________
Centrioles
__________ are made of microfilaments of the cytoskeleton
Microvilli
Microvilli are made of ___________________ of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Microvilli are made of microfilaments of the ________________
Cytoskeleton
Flagellum are made of ______________ of the cytoskeleton
Microtubules
The only human cells that use flagella are?
Sperm
Flagellum are longer than ______
Cilia
Cilia are made of ____________ from the cytoskeleton
Microtubules
Cilia have motility to move substances across cell ________
Surfaces
Cilia are longer than ________
Microvilli
Makes proteins
Ribosome
Moves particles across the cell surface
Cilia
Site of energy production
Mitochondrion
Increases surface area/absorptive area of the cell
Microvilli
Liquid-like portion of the cytoplasm absent the organelles
Cytosol
Helps maintain cell shape
Cytoskeleton
Digestive sacs
Lysosomes
Allows sperm to swim
Flagellum
Guides DNA during mitosis
Centrioles
Modifies and packages material for export
Golgi apparatus
Makes protein with a membrane for export
Rough ER
Large fibrous proteins of the cytoskeleton
Microtubules
Makes cell membrane lipids
Smooth ER
Holds the genome of the cell
Nucleus
Important in cell detoxification of free radicals
Peroxisomes
Which organelle would we need to “gum up” to hinder protein production?
Ribosomes
Why don’t antibiotics stop us from synthesizing proteins?
Because humans and bacteria have different sizes of ribosomes. The antibiotics will stop bacteria from making proteins, but not us.
A child suffers from a disease where their food molecules are not completely broken down and do not release the full energy. The child grows slowly, has muscle weakness, and has developmental delays. What organelle is not functioning properly?
Mitochondrion. It is responsible for making energy from sugars and other nutrients. Without ATP, cells can’t function properly.
A power plant worker has been exposed to atoms with a higher than usual atomic mass. These isotopes have irradiated him. Now he has mutations in his DNA that have damaged his genes. What organelle is damaged?
The nucleus. DNA is housed in the nucleus. Isotopes will break down, releasing radioactivity that can cause damage to the chromosomes and induce cancer or genetic changes if gametes (sex cells) are damaged.
T/F: The endoplasmic reticulum is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) if mitochondria are associated with the membrane.
False
The _________ is a group of fibrous proteins that provide structural support for cells, are critical for their cell motility, cell reproduction, and transportation of substances within the cell.
Centriole
Cell structure that sorts, modifies, and ships off the products that come from the rough ER.
Golgi apparatus
Cell’s central organelle, which contains the cell’s DNA
Nucleus
Cell structure specialized for cell locomotion
Flagella
Cell structure responsible for lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification
Peroxisomes
Cell structure that serves as the site of protein synthesis
Ribosomes
Cell structure which synthesizes phospholipids, the main component of biological membranes, as well as steroid hormones
Smooth ER
Cell structure that serves as the cellular origin point for microtubules extending outward as the cilia or flagella can assist with the separation of DNA during cell division
Centrioles
Cell structure which moves rhythmically; they beat constantly, moving waste materials such as dust, mucus, and bacteria upward through the airways, away from the lungs toward the mouth.
Cilia
A membranous, bean-shaped organelle that is the “energy transformer” of the cell.
Mitochondria
Cell structure responsible for synthesis and modification of proteins destined for the cell membrane or for export from the cell.
Rough ER
Cell structure which contains enzymes that break down and digest unneeded cellular components.
Lysosomes
Allows some molecules to pass through and inhibits others
Semipermeable
Non-polar, fearing water
Hydrophobic
Polar, likes water
Hydrophilic
Contains both a hydrophobic and hydrophilic part, ie. phospholipid
Amphipathic
The molecules that dissolve in the solvent
Solute
The substance that can dissolve molecules (usually water)
Solvent
A molecule that binds to a protein on the cell membrane
Ligand
Difference in concentration of substances across the membrane
Concentration gradient
The glycocalyx is made of _______, __________, and other sugars
Glycoproteins; glycolipids
The glycocalyx helps ________________ and _______________ cells
Protect; lubricate
The glycocalyx helps with cell _________ to other cells
Binding
The glycocalyx can have either _______ or _________
Receptors; enzymes
The big role of the glycocalyx is?
Self-identity
Phospholipids move _________
Laterally
The phospholipid bilayer is selectively __________
Permeable
________________ Contain carbohydrates for cell identity and act as identifiers and part of the glycocalyx
Glycolipids
Glycolipids contain ___________ for cell identity and act as identifiers and part of the glycocalyx
Carbohydrates
A ringed lipid made by the body that helps to stabilize the plasma membrane and maintain fluidity
Cholesterol
______ proteins pass all the way through the membrane
Integral
Channel proteins
Integral proteins
________ proteins can act as receptors to bind ligands
Integral
________ proteins are only on one side of the membrane
Peripheral
_________ proteins can aid in cell signaling or act as enzymes
Peripheral
The functions of the human cell membrane include acting as a ________, being used as a self-__________, and containing receptors for _________________.
Barrier; identifier; hormones
The phosphate head of a cell membrane is hydro_______
philic
The fatty acid tails of the cell membrane are hydro________
phobic
Lipid + carbohydrate
Glycolipids
_______ proteins are built into the membrane, i.e., channel proteins
Integral
_________ stabilizes the plasma membrane
Cholesterol
________ proteins are attached to only one side of the membrane
Peripheral
________________ transport uses the concentration gradient of a substance, so no energy or ATP is required
Passive
__________ transport moves substances against the concentration gradient or must expend energy to perform the transport, so it will need energy or ATP.
Active
Diffusion is movement from areas of _____ concentration to areas of _____ concentration
High; low
What are the types of passive transport mechanisms?
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Do passive transport mechanisms need energy to perform?
No
A greater difference in the concentration of a substances will make molecules move more __________
Quickly
During __________ diffusion, substances move with the concentration gradient across the cell membrane via the protein channel.
Facilitated
During _______, water moves from high water concentration to low water concentration.
Osmosis
Where there is a ______ solute concentration, there is a _____ water concentration
High; low
Active transport needs _____ to move molecules against the concentration gradient
ATP
Active transport proteins are often called _______, ________, and _________
Pumps
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
The sodium/potassium pump is an example of an ______ transport pump.
Active
The sodium/potassium pump is an active transport pump that moves sodium ____ of the cell and potassium ______ the cell.
Out; into
Endocytosis brings molecules ______ the cell.
Into
Exocytosis transports molecules _______ the cell
Out of
The movement of glucose into a cell is ______ transport.
Passive.
The movement of gases through a membrane is _______ transport.
Passive
The sodium/potassium pump is _______ transport
Active
Osmosis is _______ transport
Passive
Phagocytosis is _______ transport
Active
Facilitated diffusion is _________ transport
Passive
Endocytosis is _______ transport
Active
White blood cells removing bacteria is ______ transport
Active
Diffusion is __________ transport
Passive
Pinocytosis is ________ transport
Active
Exocytosis is ________ transport
Active
A _______ molecule (or region of a molecule) is one that is attracted to water
Hydrophilic
A ____________ molecule (or region of a molecule) repels and is repelled by water.
Hydrophobic
A _______________ molecule is one that contains both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic
Amphipathic
A channel protein is an example of a __________ protein that selectively allows particular materials, such as certain ions, to pass into or out of the cell.
Integral
A _________ is the specific molecule that binds to and activates a receptor.
Ligand
__________ helps to contribute to the fluidity of the cell membrane.
Cholesterol
During __________, ATP is required to move a substance across a membrane, often with the help of protein carriers, and usually against its concentration gradient.
Active transport
A membrane that has selective permeability allows only substances meeting certain criteria to pass through it unaided.
True
____________ diffusion is the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to their size, charge, and/or polarity.
Facilitated
A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution is said to be ____________
Hypertonic
While a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution is said to be ______________________
Hypotonic
Sequence of DNA that codes for a single protein
Gene
Loose strand of DNA
Chromatin
Condensed structure of DNA and proteins formed during cell division; in humans arranged in 23 pairs
Chromosome
_____ is a nucleic acid made of nucleotides containing nitreogenous bases.
DNA
DNA is a nucleic acid made of __________ containing nitreogenous bases.
Nucleotides
DNA is a nucleic acid made of nucleotides containing _______________ bases.
Nitrogenous
The bases of DNA are arranged in _______________ base pairs.
Complimentary
Two strands of DNA form a ________
Double helix
What are the four nitrogenous bases of DNA?
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
In addition to the nitrogenous bases, DNA also contains the sugar __________ and __________ groups
deoxyribose; phosphate
What are the complementary bases of DNA?
A-T, and C-G
Bases in DNA are held together by ________ bonds
Hydrogen
DNA is usually found in loose strands called _________
Chromatin
Chromatin is wound around proteins (_______) for packaging and called a nucleosome.
Histones
Chromatin is wound around proteins (histones) for packaging and called a ________
Nucleosome
During cell division, the chromatin will _____ and become visible. This is known as a chromosome.
Condense
During cell division, the chromatin will condense and become visible. This is known as a _____
Chromosome
Humans have __ pairs of chromosomes, to a total of __ chromosomes.
23; 46
Both forms of DNA, loose chromatin and densely-coiled chromosomes, still hold the ______ each cell needs to operate.
Genes
A _____ is a segment of DNA that codes for a product, usually a protein.
gene
A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a product, usually a ______
Protein
The sequence of bases found on DNA is the genetic ______ that is read to make a protein.
Code
The sequence of bases found on DNA is the genetic code that is read to make a _____
Protein
Before a cell can divide, the DNA in the cell needs to _____ so each new cell gets all the DNA needed to _____ properly.
Replicate; function
An enzyme needed for replication, _______ separates the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs.
Helicase
An enzyme needed for replication, ____________ brings in the complimentary base to build a new strand.
DNA Polymerase
Once the two new strands are built, the process ______
Stops
Replication can take place in _______ and results in two identical strands. The strands have one new strand and one old strand.
Interphase
The two complementary strands are separated, much like unzipping a zipper. Special enzymes, including helicase, untwist and separate the two strands of DNA.
Initiation
Each strand becomes a template along which a new complementary strand is built. DNA polymerase brings in the correct bases to complement the template strand, synthesizing a new strand base by base. A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that adds free nucleotides to the end of a chain of DNA, making a new double strand. This growing strand continues to be built until it has fully complemented the template strand.
Elongation
Once the two original strands are bound to their own, finished, complementary strands, DNA replication is stopped and the two new identical DNA molecules are complete.
Termination
Complementary strand of AGTGCC
TCACGG
__________ is the copying of DNA that occurs before cell division can take place.
DNA replication
A cell with two copies of a chromosome
Diploid
A pair of chromosomes, one from each parent
Homologous
Exact copies of DNA molecules found during mitosis
Sister chromatid
Attaches two sister chromatids together
Centromere
Normal body cells (Does not include sex cells: eggs or sperm)
Somatic cell
Normal body cells (Does not include sex cells: eggs or sperm)
Sex cell
All cells have a cell ______, and the time that is spent in different phases of the cell cycle varies by cell ______.
Cycle;type
Neurons ______ divide and spend much of their cell cycle in ___
Do not; G0
Epithelial cells divide _________ and will go through _________ and ________ every few days. The result is two new identical cells to the original parent cell.
Frequently; interphase; mitosis
Before cells can divide, their DNA must be _______
Copied
Before cells can divide, their DNA must be copied. The resulting DNA is arranged in __________, and in __________________.
Sister chromatids; homologous pairs
The time when a cell is not dividing.
Interphase
During interphase, the cell will do normal cell functions and prepare for _______
Division
The first growth phase for cells that will divide again
G1 (aka Gap phase 1)
___ phase is the replication (synthesis) of DNA
S
____ phase is the second growth phase, and the cell prepares for mitosis
G2
The last phase of the cell cycle, when the cell is actively dividing
Mitosis
Five phases of mitosis?
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Cell cycle: chromosomes condense and become visible as homologous pairs and as sister chromatids
Prophase
Cell cycle: nuclear membrane disappears
Prophase
Cell cycle: Spindle fibers form from the centrosome (centriole) and attach to the centromere
Prophase
Cell cycle: Centrioles move toward opposite poles
Prophase
Cell cycle: Chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate or equator
Metaphase
Cell cycle: Spindle fibers are attached to the centromere holding sister chromatids together
Metaphase
Cell cycle: centromeres split and sister chromatids are pulled toward each pole
Anaphase
Cell cycle: Spindle fibers shorten to pull the chromosomes toward the poles. Other fibers elongate to begin separating the cell.
Anaphase
Cell cycle: Chromosomes at their new poles decondense into chromatin
Telophase
Cell cycle: Nuclear membrane starts surrounding the chromosomes
Telophase
Cell cycle :Mitotic spindle breaks down
Telophase
Cell cycle: Spindle fibers keep pushing the poles apart
Telophase
Cell cycle: Overlaps the end of telophase, the cytoplasm separates between the two new cells
Cytokinesis
Cell cycle: A cleavage furrow is made by microfilaments (actin filaments) which create a separation between the two new cells
Cytokinesis
During the normal cell cycle there are ______ checkpoints where the cell either proceeds or stops.
Three
What are the three checkpoints where the cell either proceeds or stops?
G1, G2, and M
The restriction checkpoint in the cell cycle
G1
The ____ checkpoint is when the cell needs to be ready to replicate the DNA. The cell is large enough and has enough reserves for DNA replication
G1
The ____ checkpoint is when the cell needs to be ready for mitosis. The DNA must be properly replicated.
G2
The ___ checkpoint occurs during metaphase of mitosis to make sure all sister chromatids are attached and in the proper places so each cell gets a complete set of chromosomes
M
Cell ________ tell the cell to either go (divide) or stop (don’t divide)
Signals
_______ are a common cell signal regulating mitosis.
Cyclins
____________ tell the cell to divide.
Proto-oncogenes
____________ genes tell the cell to stop dividing.
Tumor suppressor
__________ can make a proto-oncogene into an oncogene.
Mutations
A change in the nucleotide sequence in a gene within a cell’s DNA, potentially altering the protein coded for that gene.
Mutations
____________________________ can cause permanent damage to cellular lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can cause permanent damage to?
Cellular lipids
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Nucleic acids
Damaged DNA can lead to genetic ______ and even _______
Mutations; cancer
Lack of cell _________ can allow cells to grow out of control
Regulation
____________ cells lack contact inhibition, don’t resemble the cell of origin and often invade nearby tissues.
Cancerous
Possible causes of cancer can be?
An abnormal oncogene with a continuous go signal; or a lack of a tumor suppressor gene that doesn’t tell the cell to stop.
Cancerous cells that travel to new sites are _________
Metastasizing
The cytoplasm splits to form daughter cells.
Cytokinesis
Spindle fibers break down and chromatin appears.
Telophase
Chromosomes align down the center of the cell.
Metaphase
Chromosomes pear, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear envelope disappears.
Prophase
Chromatid pairs separate and move toward opposite sides of the cell.
Anaphase
Correct sequence of cell cycle?
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
During this stage, the sister chromatids, with their attached microtubules, line up along a linear plane in the middle of the cell.
Metaphase
Characterized by the formation of two new daughter nuclei at either end of the dividing cell is this phase?
Telophase
________ are changes in DNA that can be passed to a new generation of cells
Mutations
T/F: A lack of cell signaling during mitosis can lead to cancer.
True
Checkpoint: getting ready to replicate DNA
G1
Checkpoint: The DNA replicated correctly
G2
Checkpoint: The chromosomes are all attached and lined up
M
The chemical that can signal a cell to divide or stop dividing is
Cyclins
Two bases bonded together making the rung of the DNA and used to create DNA or RNA. (A-T, C-G in DNA; A-U, C-G in RNA)
Base pairing
DNA to RNA
Transcription
RNA to protein
Translation
Codes for an amino acid
Sense codons
Stop signs for translation
Stop codons
Found on tRNA; complementary bases to the mRNA codon
Anticodon
Small proteins made with amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Polypeptide
DNA has the genes needed to code for a particular _______
Protein
The process of protein synthesis occurs is a series of steps starting in the ______ and ending at the ________
Nucleus; ribosome
DNA is in the _______ and is ________ stranded.
Nucleus; double
________ is the sugar on one strand and _________ is on the other stand with the base pairs AT & CG connecting them.
Deoxyribose; Phosphate
Proteins are ______ dependent and run many of the cells functions as ________.
Shape; enzymes
The process of making protein is _____________, not all genes are expressed at all times.
Gene expression
___ > RNA > Protein
DNA
DNA > ___ > Protein
RNA
DNA > RNA > ______
Protein
______ > Codon > Amino Acid
Triplet
Triplet > _____ > Amino Acid
Codon
Triplet > Codon > _________
Amino acid
There are several different types of RNA, each having different _______ in the cell.
Functions
The structure of RNA is similar to ____ with a few small exceptions.
DNA
Most types of RNA, including mRNA, are ______-stranded and contain no _________ strand.
Single; complementary
RNA contains _____, whereas DNA has ________.
Ribose; deoxyribose
Instead of the base _______, RNA contains the base _______. This means that _______ will always pair up with _______ during the protein synthesis process.
Thymine; Uracil; adenine; uracil
RNA is _____-stranded
Single
RNA is made of:
Ribose sugar
Phosphates
The bases A, U, C, G
The DNA strand is used to create:
RNA
mRNA (messenger)
tRNA (transfer)
rRNA (ribosomal)
Transcription takes place in the?
Nucleus
The gene of DNA is made into a _______ molecule that can be used to create a protein.
mRNA
DNA is written in three base groups called a ______
Triplet
RNA is written in three bases called ______
Codons
To go from DNA to RNA, ___________ reads the DNA template and adds the complimentary base.
RNA polymerase
If the DNA reads ATC; the mRNA would be ____.
UAG
*Remember RNA doesn’t use __ so if you want to add a T it would be a __.
T; U
Translation uses the ________ and the ________
to create a protein.
mRNA; ribosome
The process of translation begins at a __________ (____) and ends when it reaches a stop codon.
Start codon; AUG
mRNA leaves the nucleus through a pore and associates with a ribosome (made of rRNA) either in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Step 1 of translation
In step 1 of translation, the mRNA leaves the nucleus through a pore and associates with a __________ (made of rRNA) either in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosome
The ribosome “reads” the mRNA and tRNA carries in the complimentary anticodon that matches the codon on mRNA.
If the codon is AUG then the anticodon is UAC.
Step 2 of translation
In step 2 of translation, The ribosome “reads” the mRNA and tRNA carries in the complimentary ________ that matches the codon on mRNA.
If the codon is AUG then the anticodon is _____.
Anticodon; UAC
Each tRNA drops off the amino acid it carries, and the amino acids are joined together by peptide bonding.
The polypeptide made is the primary sequence of that protein.
Step 3 of translation
In step 3 of translation, Each tRNA drops off the amino acid it carries, and the amino acids are joined together by ________ bonding.
The polypeptide made is the primary ________ of that protein.
Peptide; sequence
The polypeptide leaves the ribosome and will either be ready for use or undergo more processing by the RER and Golgi.
Step 4 of translation
In step 4 of translation, The polypeptide leaves the ribosome and will either be ready for use or undergo more processing by the _____ and _______
RER; Golgi
The rRNA has _____ subunits, a large and small, that join around the mRNA. As the mRNA makes its way down the mRNA strand, tRNA brings the matching amino acid until a stop codon is reached.
Two
____________ is the synthesis of a strand of mRNA that is complementary to the gene of interest.
Transcription
___________ is the process of synthesizing a chain of amino acids called a polypeptide.
Translation
The mRNA sequence that is complementary to the sequence AUG on a tRNA is
UAC
A ______ is a section of three DNA bases in a row that codes for a specific amino acid.
Triplet
Translation takes place on the _________
Ribosome
Has the anticodon
tRNA
Makes the large and small ribosomal subunit
rRNA
Carries the message from DNA to the ribosome
mRNA
_________ are collections of specialized cells that perform a limited number of functions.
Tissues
Tissues are ________ according to cellular appearance and function
Classified
The study of tissues
Histology
What are the three different types of cell shapes?
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
What are the two types of squamous tissue?
Simple squamous epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
What are the two types of cuboidal tissue?
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
What are the three types of columnar tissue?
Simple columnar epithelium
Stratified columnar epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
What is the type of tissue that is pseudostratified in addition to simple and stratified?
columnar
This type of tissue means “flattened” or “squished”
Squamous
This type of tissue means “cube-shaped”
Cuboidal
This type of tissue means rectangular-shaped
Columnar
A single layer of cells attached to the basement membrane
Simple
Layered cells dividing from the basement membrane
Stratified
False stratified. Closely packed cells which appear to be stratified, but are actually attached to the basement membrane.
Pseudostratified
___________ tissue covers body surfaces; lines cavities, passageways, and ducts; and forms glands.
Epithelial
Different functions are performed by different __________ of epithelia.
Classifications
What type of epithelia is found in the air sacs of the lungs?
Squamous epithelium
What type of epithelia is found in the intestines?
Columnar epithelium
What type of epithelium is found in the kidneys?
Cuboidal epithelium
What type of epithelium is found in the respiratory tract?
Ciliated epithelium
What type of epithelium is found in the bladder?
Transitional epithelium
What type of epithelium is found in the skin?
Stratified keratinised epithelium
Why is simple squamous epithelium found in the air sacs of the lungs?
Simple squamous epithelium is thin; it allows oxygen and carbon dioxide to easily diffuse across the lungs and in/out of the bloodstream.
Why is simple columnar epithelium found in the digestive tract?
Simple columnar epithelia have microvilli, which increases their surface area much like the strings of a mop. This increases their ability to absorb nutrients from the digestive tract and then allow them to diffuse into the bloodstream.
Why is pseudostratified epithelium found in the lungs?
The pseudostratified epithelium of the lungs includes cells that make mucus which traps dirt and bacteria. This epithelium can move and clear out the mucus as well.
Why is cuboidal epithelium found in the kidneys?
Simple cuboidal cells are able to absorb large volumes of water and other chemicals from our urine and return it to the bloodstream.
Why is transitional epithelium found in the bladder?
Transitional epithelium is built to stretch. As the bladder fills, this epithelium is able to hold more and more urine.
Why is stratified keratinized epithelium found in the skin?
Layer after layer of cells form a protective barrier in our skin. The top layers are keratinized which means they are hard and dead and thus immune to infection.
Epithelium is __________ which means that it lacks blood vessels
Avascular
Epithelium is avascular, which means that it lacks ___________
Blood vessels
Most epithelial tissue rapidly ___________
Regenerates
Epithelial tissue provides the body’s first line of protection from _________, _____________, and _____________ wear and tear
Physical; chemical; biological
Epithelial tissue controls ___________ by acting as gatekeepers to the body
Permeability
The basement membrane of the skin includes the ___________ and __________ laminas
Basal; reticular
The __________ surface of skin is exposed to an external or internal environment. It can contain cilia or microvilli.
Apical
The apical surface of skin can contain ________ or ________
Cilia; microvilli
The ___________ is the opposite side of apical surface, and helps to connect the Epithelial Tissue to the underlying Connective Tissue, while providing strength.
Basement membrane
The basement membrane is the opposite side of the _________ surface, and helps to connect the Epithelial Tissue to the underlying Connective Tissue, while providing strength.
Apical
Stratified squamous epithelia can be classified as either ____________ or ______________
Keratinized; non-keratinized
Keratinized cells are filled with the protein _______, which makes skin and hair hard and waterproof.
Keratin
In keratinized cells, the upper layers of the epithelium are dead and become _________.
Flattened
The epidermis (superficial topmost layer of the skin) is ___________ _____________.
Keratinized epithelium
In non-keratinized cells, the surface cells are __________.
Living
Moist coverings of the body and organs are non-______________. Examples are the linings of the vagina, mouth, and internal organs.
Keratinized
What are some examples of moist coverings of the body and organs that are non-keratinized?
Vagina, mouth, internal organs.
Non-keratinized cells do not contain?
Keratin
Functions of simple columnar epithelium?
Secretes and absorbs, may contain microvilli which increase surface area and help with absorption.
Where is simple columnar epithelium located?
Stomach, intestines, gallbladder
Function of stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium?
Protects
Stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium locations?
Skin (keratinized)
Esophagus
Mouth
Vagina
Functions of pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
Contains goblet cells, which secrete mucus.
Cilia move mucus and can gently move reproductive cells.
Where is pseudostratified columnar epithelium found in the body?
Nasal cavity
Trachea
Conductive respiratory tract
Portions of the male reproductive system
What is the function of transitional epithelium?
Allows urinary organs to expand and stretch
Cell __________ connect one cell to another.
Junctions
What are the three types of cell junctions?
Tight
Anchoring
Gap junctions
In _______ cell junctions, there is no extracellular space between two cells. Forms a zipper-like closure and an impermeable barrier.
Tight
Which type of cell junction forms a zipper-like closure and an impermeable barrier.
Tight
What is an example of a tight junction between cells in the body?
between the epithelial cells lining your bladder which prevents urine from leaking out into the extracellular space.
What is the purpose of tight junctions between cells lining the bladder?
Prevents urine from leaking out into the extracellular space
What type of junction between cells provides a strong but flexible connection?
Anchoring junctions
Anchoring junctions between cells are commonly found where?
In tissues that are prone to constant mechanical stress, like the skin
What type of cell junction forms an intercellular passageway between the membranes of adjacent cells?
Gap junctions
What is an example of a gap junction between cells in the body?
Between heart muscle cells which share electrical current
Epithelial membranes are composed of both __________ tissue and ____________ tissue.
Epithelial; connective
These epithelial membranes are found lining the ________ body surface: cutaneous membranes and mucous membranes
External
Which epithelial membranes are found lining the external body surface?
Cutaneous; mucous
These epithelial membranes are found lining the ________ body cavities: serous membranes
Internal
_________ membranes line organs in cavities that do not open to the outside.
Serous
Serous membranes line organs in cavities that ____________________.
Do not open to the outside
________ membranes secrete a fluid that reduces friction between opposing surfaces
Serous
The ________ layer of a membrane lines the walls of the body cavity
Parietal
The _________ layer of a membrane covers the organ’s surface
Visceral
The visceral pleura is?
The outer covering of the lungs
What is the peritoneum?
Encloses the peritoneal cavity and organs of the abdomen
What is the pericardium?
The outer covering of the heart.
Outer layer lining the lung cavity
Parietal pleura
Outer layer lining the abdominal cavity
Parietal peritoneum
Outer layer lining the heart cavity
Parietal pericardium
Inner layer covering the lungs
Visceral pleura
Inner layer covering the abdominal cavity
Visceral peritoneum
Inner layer covering the heart cavity
Visceral pericardium
________ membranes line the body cavities and hollow passageways that are open to the external environments
Mucous
What type of membrane is the mouth?
A mucous membrane
In the mouth, ________ covers the epithelial layer.
Mucous
Mucous membranes include the mouth and what other tracts?
Digestive tract
Respiratory tract
Urinary tract
Reproductive tract
The ______ is an epithelial membrane also called the cutaneous membrane.
Skin
The skin is an epithelial membrane also called the ____________ membrane.
Cutaneous
The cutaneous membrane is made up of ______________ __________ _____________ tissue superficial to connective tissue.
Stratified squamous epithelial
The cutaneous membrane is made up of stratified squamous epithelial tissue superficial to ___________ tissue.
Connective
The apical surface of the ___________ membrane is exposed to the external environment and helps to protect the body.
Cutaneous
The cutaneous membrane has many layers of _______ _________ cells to help protect against pathogens.
Stratified squamous
The cutaneous membrane has many layers of stratified squamous cells to help protect against _________.
Pathogens
A _______ is a structure made up of one or more cells modified to synthesize and secrete chemical substances.
Gland
A gland is a structure made up of one or more cells modified to _________ and __________ chemical substances.
Synthesize; secrete
A gland is a structure made up of one or more cells modified to synthesize and secrete _______ _________
Chemical substances
Most glands consist of groups of modified epithelial cells. Glands can be classified as either __________ or ___________
Endocrine; exocrine
Ductless glands that release secretions directly into surrounding tissues and fluids.
Endocrine glands
Use ducts and empty into the external environment.
Exocrine glands
Most common type of exocrine secretion?
Merocrine
In a merocrine secretion, watery secretions are released by _________
Exocytosis
This form of secretion affects the function of the cell the least, as it does not damage the cell.
Merocrine secretion (exocrine)
What is an example of a merocrine (exocrine) secretion in the body?
Mucous glands in the mouth, eccrine (sweat) glands, mammary glands.
In an _________ secretion, the Apical portion of cell is broken down and becomes the secretory product.
Apocrine
In an apocrine secretion, the ______ portion of cell is broken down and becomes the secretory product.
Apical
What are a few examples of apocrine glands in the body?
Apocrine sweat glands in the armpit and mammary glands
Mammary glands also use the __________ mode for secretion of milk proteins, even though they are mostly ________ and secrete lipid droplets.
Merocrine; apocrine
Type of exocrine secretion in which the entire cell ruptures and is secreted.
Holocrine
In a ______ secretion, cell division replaces lost cells, then the cells increase in size, and then burst again.
Holocrine
What is an example of a holocrine secretion?
Sebaceous glands (oil glands of the skin)
The salivary glands include which glands?
- Sublingual glands
- Submandibular glands
- Parotid glands
____________ secrete mucins that form mucus.
An example is the sublingual salivary gland.
Mucous glands
_______ glands are both serous and mucous.
An example is the submandibular salivary gland.
Mixed
The _______ glands produce watery secretions with enzymes. They help to reduce friction and begin digestion.
An example is the parotid salivary gland.
Serous
True or false, a visceral layer will cover the surface of an organ?
True
_________ epithelium is found only in the urinary system, specifically the ureters and urinary bladder
Transitional
An _________ gland uses ducts and empties into the external environment
Exocrine
True or false, the cutaneous membrane is a stratified squamous epithelial membrane resting on top of connective tissue.
True
These epithelial membranes line the body cavities and hollow passageways that open to the external environment, and include the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts.
Mucous membranes
Three ______ membranes line the thoracic cavity; the two pleura that cover the lungs and the pericardium that covers the heart.
Serous
_____ tissues are the most diverse body tissues
Connective
__________ tissues help with support and protection, along with transportation, storage of energy, and defense of the body.
Connective
Connective tissues fall into three categories classified by the characteristics of their _____________ and type of ______________
Fluid ground substance; protein fibers
What are the types of connective tissue proper?
Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
Dense regular
Dense irregular
What are the types of supportive connective tissue?
Cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic) and bone (compact, spongy)
What are the two types of liquid/fluid connective tissue?
Blood and lymph
A type of white blood cell, derived from a monocyte
Macrophage
An essential component of the immune system
Macrophage
When stimulated, macrophages release ________ (small proteins that act as chemical messengers), that mobilize the immune system
Cytokines
Consumes bacteria and waste using phagocytosis
Macrophages
Most abundant cell in connective tissue
Fibroblasts
Produces the connective tissue fibers and ground substance
Fibroblasts
Stores lipids as droplets
Adipocyte
What are the two types of adipocytes?
White and brown
Which type of adipocyte stores lipids as a single large drop?
White
Which type of adipocyte stores lipids as many droplets?
Brown
Releases the chemical signals histamine and heparin to help out with inflammation
Mast cells
Causes vasodilation and increased blood flow at site of injury
Histamine
Slows the formation of blood clots
Heparin
Primary cell of mature bone
Osteocyte
Cartilage cells that help to maintain cartilage
Chondrocyte
What are the three main types of fibers of connective tissues?
Collagen
Elastic
Reticular
Collagen is thick, long, straight, and ________
Unbranched
Collagen has great tensile strength, resists stretching while being ________
Flexible
Collagen holds ________ tissues together
Connective
Elastic connective tissue is wavy and _________
Branched
Elastic connective tissue contains the protein ________
Elastin
______ connective tissue will return to its original shape after being stretched or compressed
Elastic
_______ connective tissue is narrow and branched
Reticular
________ connective tissue is abundant in the reticular tissue of soft organs, like the liver and spleen
Reticular
___________________ fills spaces between cells and surrounds fibers.
Ground substance
All connective tissue fibers are embedded in _________ in connective tissue.
Ground substance
Ground substance slows down the movement of ________
Pathogens
Ground substance is usually a _________, but can be mineralized and solid, like in bone.
Fluid
Ground substance and protein fibers make up the ___________
Matrix
What are the two types of connective tissue proper?
Loose connective tissue
Dense connective tissue
Loose connective tissue has more ________, fewer fibers
Ground substance
What are some types of loose connective tissue?
Areolar, adipose, reticular
______ connective tissue has less ground substance, more fibers
dense
What are the two types of dense connective tissue?
Regular; irregular
Provides framework that helps to support the rest of the body.
Supportive connective tissue
