Exam 2 Review Flashcards
1
Q
Monophyletic group
A
A group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants.
2
Q
Paraphyletic group
A
A group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants
3
Q
Polyphyletic group
A
Organisms that are grouped together despite not being closely related
4
Q
Clade
A
a group of organisms that includes a single ancestor and all of its descendents
also known as monophyletic group
5
Q
Sister taxa
A
two lineages or clades that share a most recent common ancestor
6
Q
Basal taxa
A
clades that branch of early in the clade
7
Q
Analogous
A
performing a similar function but having a different evolutionary origin
8
Q
Homologous
A
structures or traits in different organisms that share a common evolutionary origin or ancestry
9
Q
Binomial nomenclature
A
combines two names into one to give all species unique scientific names
10
Q
Convergent evolution
A
when unrelated organisms evolve similar traits to adapt to similar environments
11
Q
Node
A
represent common ancestors that evolved a particular physical trait or characteristic
12
Q
Parsimony
A
when there are multiple explanations for observed data, the simplest one is preferred
13
Q
Shared derived traits
A
characteristics shared by two or more species that evolved from a common ancestor
14
Q
Shared ancestral traits
A
characteristics or traits that are present in a common ancestor and are inherited by all of its descendants
15
Q
Molecular Clocks
A
a method used to estimate the time of evolutionary divergence between species by comparing the differences in their DNA or protein sequences
16
Q
How are organisms classified in the taxonomic system?
A
A hierarchical model to organize living organisms
17
Q
What are the evolutionary differences of the three different domains?
A
Eukarya
-Has Nucleus
Bacteria
-Prok., doesn’t have nucleus, diverse, #1
Archea
-Histones, Euk.
18
Q
What is the broadest classification?
A
Domain
19
Q
What are the characteristic traits associated with each of the domains?
A
Bacteria
-Prok.
-Has peptidoglycan
Archea
-Prok.
-Lacks peptidoglycan
Eukarya
-Euk.
20
Q
Binomial nomenclature
A
a system that uses a two-part scientific name (genus and species) to identify and classify organisms
21
Q
How is Binomial nomenclature used to name organisms?
A
assigns each organism a unique scientific name consisting of its genus and species
22
Q
How do phylogenetic groups reflect evolutionary relatedness?
A
The pattern of branching reflects how species or other groups evolved from a series of common ancestors
23
Q
What kinds of assumptions are used in determining time since divergence with molecular clocks?
A
-Constant mutation rate
-Neutral/Nearly Neutral Mutation
-Homologous Gene
-Rate Homogeneity
-Calibration Points
-No Gene Conversion/Recombination
-No selection
-No genetic drift
-No imcomplete linear sorting
24
Q
How can molecular data be used to determine evolutionary relatedness?
A
By comparing DNA of different organisms it’s possible to document genetic change over time
25
How do mutations play a role in this process of molecular data?
provide the raw material for natural selection to act upon, leading to the emergence of new traits and the adaptation of populations over time
26
Do mutations occur at a constant rate?
Yes
27
What type of DNA is used for developing molecular clocks?
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
28
What type of characteristics are used to make phylogenetic trees?
-Morphological (body shape)
-Biochemical trait
-Behavioral pattern
-Molecular data
29
maximum parsimony
a method for reconstructing evolutionary trees that favors the tree with the fewest evolutionary changes
30
What does the principle of maximum parsimony mean for determining phylogenetic relationships?
the optimal tree will minimize the amount of convergent evolution, parallel evolution & evolutionary reversals
31
What does it mean if a group or species is part of a monophyletic group?
group includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants
32
What types of sequences are used during molecular data?
DNA, RNA, and protein (amino acid) sequences
33
What genes are most useful for comparing species of animals that have diverged recently?
mtDNA; mitochondrial data
34
How can you tell which species diverged first when comparing molecular sequence data?
Looking at the rRNA
35
Extremophils
an organism that is able to live in extreme environments,
36
Halophils
an extremophile that thrives in high salt concentrations
37
Acidophils
two different types of cells which stain well with acidic dyes.
38
Thermophiles
type of extremophile that thrives at relatively high temperatures, between 41 and 122 °C
39
Gram positive
are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test
40
Gram negative
Bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of
41
Peptidoglycan
Unique, mesh-like polymer found in the cell walls of most bacteria
42
Glycocalyx
highly-hydrated fibrous meshwork of carbohydrates that covers the membrane of endothelial cells, bacteria, and other cells
43
Lipopolysaccharide
important outer membrane components of gram-negative bacteria
44
Gram strain test
used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall
45
Coccus
Any spherical or roughly spherical bacterium.
46
Bacillus
rod-shaped bacteria (Gram positive)
47
Spirillum
curved-shaped bacteria w/ gently curved shape to a corkscrew spiral (Gram negative)
48
Vibrio
Bacteria that naturally live in certain coastal waters (Gram negative)
49
Pathogenic
Any organism or agent that can produce disease
50
Nutrient cycling
Movement of essential elements (like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus) through the Earth's ecosystems, from living organisms to the environment and back
51
Decomposers
Organisms that break down dead organisms and release the nutrients from the dead matter into the environment around them
52
Fimbriae
finger-like projections on the ends of your fallopian tubes closest to your ovaries
53
Pili
hair-like, proteinaceous appendages found on the surface of bacteria and archea
54
Flagellum
hair-like appendage that protrudes from certain plant and animal sperm cells
55
Cyanobacteria
a group of autotrophic gram-negative bacteria
56
Symbiosis
a close, prolonged association between two or more different biological species
57
What roles do microorganisms have in maintaining ecological systems?
-decomposing organic matter
-cycling nutrients
-oxygen production
- nitrogen fixation
58
Cell wall components of gram positive
-Peptidoglycan:
-Teichoic Acids
-Lipoteichoic Acids
-Lack of Outer Membrane
-Cell wall-anchored proteins
59
Cell wall components of Gram negative
-Cytoplasmic Membrane
-Thin Peptidoglycan Layer
-Periplasmic Space
-Lipopolysaccharides (LPS
-Porins
-Lipoproteins
60
How dose antibiotic resistance occur?
when bacteria evolve and develop mechanisms to survive exposure to antibiotics, often through genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes
61
How do bacteria reproduce?
Binary fission
62
How do antibiotic resistance genes get transferred from one species to another?
through the conjugation between the same genus or different species
63
What features/structures allow for bacteria to move through their environment?
Flagella
64
What is binary fission
A type of asexual reproduction where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells
65
How are bacteria able to adhere to surfaces?
Flagella
66
What role do cyanobacteria play in ecosystems?
-Nitrogen cycle
-Helps plants
67
How can bacteria provide a benefit to humans?
-aiding digestion
-producing essential vitamins
-boosting the immune system
-being used in manufacturing and medicine
68
Why do we need cyanobacteria to “fix” nitrogen?
They are crucial for converting atmospheric nitrogen
69
Describe the evolutionary advancements that allowed plants to colonize land.
Plants evolved from green algae
70
Describe the major advancements helped land plants move from a moist/wet environment to lands that have less water?
-Waxy cuticle
-Stomata
-Vascular Tissue
-Roots
-Lignin
-Leaves
-Alternation of Generations
-Symbiotic Relationship
71
bryophytes
a group of land plants
72
seedless vascular plants
plants that contain vascular tissue, but do not produce flowers or seeds
73
seed vascular plants.
vascular plants that reproduce using seeds
74
What are the defining characteristics of bryophytes, seedless vascular plants and seed vascular plants.
Bryophytes (Non-Vascular Plants)
-Simple structure, water dependency
Seedless Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes)
-Vascular tissue, true roots, stems & leaves
Seed Vascular Plants (Spermatophytes)
-Vascular tissue, seed production
75
What are the three basic shapes of bacteria?
Spheres or ball-shaped (cocci bacteria).
Rod-shaped bacteria (bacilli).
Spirals or helixes (spirochetes
76
Describe alternation of generations.
plants alternate between two different life stages, or generations, in their life cycle
77
Describe why the advent of seeds in the vascular seed plants was such an evolutionary advancement.
allowed for greater reproductive success adaptation to drier environments
freeing plants from dependence on water for reproduction and dispersal
78
Describe the different seed plants and their distinguishing characteristics.
Gymnosperms
-seeds found in cones, reproduction through wind pollation
ex. Pines, palm trees
Angiosperms
-seeds enclosed in a fruit, reproduction through animal/insect pollution
ex. roses, trees
79
Describe the different ways seed plants can be pollinated?
-wind pollution
-water pollution
-animal pollution
-self-pollution (pollen, etc.)
-cross-pollution (other plants)
80
Describe how plants and their different pollinators have co-evolved?
-Mutual benefits
-plant adaptations
-pollinator adaptations
81
How has the advent of fruit helped in dispersal of seeds for the plant?
making seeds more attractive to animals for consumption and transportation, or by providing mechanisms for wind or water dispersal
82
What are the co-evolutionary ties with seed dispersal and fruit?
plants evolving traits to attract and benefit from animals (frugivores) that disperse their seeds, while frugivores evolve to exploit these fruits, creating a mutually beneficial relationship
83
What are the different types of vascular tissue?
xylem and phloem
84
what kinds of substances do they transport for the plant?
water, minerals, sugars (products of photosynthesis), and other organic compounds
85
What are the closest living relatives of land plants?
Green algae
86
What group did the kingdom plantae arise from?
A group of aquatic green algae (Charophyt)
87
Which plant group arose most recently?
Angiosperms (flowering plants)
88
What is double fertilization?
A unique process where two sperm cells fuse with two different female gamete
89
How does double fertilization benefit angiosperms?
Ensuring the development of both a viable embryo (zygote) and a food-rich endosperm
90
What does the endosperm represent?
The part of a seed which acts as a food store for the developing plant embryo
91
What are the different types of secondary compounds plants produce?
terpenoids
phenolic compounds
alkaloids
sulfur-containing compounds.
92
What is the primary use for these compounds for the plants?
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and oils
93
How can plant compounds benefit humans?
antioxidant protection
potential anti-cancer properties
support for gut health
cardiovascular health
immune function
94
How can these different plant chemicals be used to benefit us?
antioxidants
reducing inflammation
potentially preventing cancer, cardiovascular disease, and other ailments
95
stomata
small pores on the surfaces of leaves and stalks
96
carpels
Female reproductive organ of a flower,
97
petals
modified leaves that form an inner whorl surrounding the reproductive parts of flowers
98
what does endosperm do for the developing plant embryo?
The seed protects the developing plant embryo and stores nutrients for it, allowing it to grow and develop into a seedling
99
sepals
The outer parts of the flower that enclose a developing bud.
100
What are carpels, petals, and sepals used for in flowering plants?
enclose ovules (immature seeds) and make pollen
101
What is pollen?
a powdery substance produced by flowering plants for reproduction
102
How is pollen different from spores?
Pollen grains are larger and carry male gametes, whereas spores are smaller, simpler structures capable of developing independently
103
What are the key characteristics of all animals?
-eukaryotic
-multicellurality
-Heterotrophic
-Large movement
-Nervous system
-specialized tissue
-sexual and asexual reproduction
104
What does it mean to be a heterotroph?
an organism that eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients
105
ancestral trait
a characteristic inherited from a common ancestor of a group of organisms
106
Distinguish between an ancestral trait and a shared derived trait.
An ancestral trait is a characteristic present in the common ancestor of a group, while a shared derived trait is a new trait that evolved in a lineage after it branched off from its ancestor
107
radial symmetry
plant and animal symmetry in which similar parts are arranged in a balanced way around the center of the body
108
bilateral symmetry
body plan where an organism can be divided into two roughly mirror-image halves along a single plane resulting in distinct left and right sides
109
How are the two body plans different?
differ in how their body parts are arranged
110
What are the key differences of the 2 body plans?
Radial sym. = parts arranged around a central axis, like a wheel
Bilateral sym. = distinct left and right side, with a front and back.
111
What are the defining characteristics of the phylum Porifera?
Their bodies are asymmetrical
112
What organisms represent this phylum Porifera?
Sycon (Scypha)
Spongilla (Freshwater sponge)
Euspongia (Bath sponge)
113
What are the defining characteristics of Cnideria?
Radial symmetry
Gastrovascular Cavity
Cnidocytes
Nematocysts
114
What are the characteristics of the clade Lophotrochozoa?
trochophore
movement via cilia or muscle contractions
a horseshoe-shaped crown of tentacles used in feeding
115
What are the types of animals associated with this clade Lophotrochozoa?
Annelids (roundworms), mollusk (squid, clams, snails)
116
What are the groups of organisms that fall under the unsegmented body type and the segmented body type?
flatworms (Platyhelminthes) and roundworms (Nematoda)
117
What are the key characteristics shared by all vertebrates?
Backbone
Endoskeleton
Bilateral Symmetry
Cranium (Skull)
Dorsal nerve cord
Pharyngeal Slits
Post-anal tail
118
What are the key differences between vertebrates and invertebrates?
IV don't have spines; V have spines
119
What characteristics do the jawless fishes share?
Lack jaws.
Feed by suction with the help of a round muscular mouth and rows of teeth.
Have cylindrical and long bodies.
Do not have paired fins and scales like most fish.
120
What are the shared derived characteristics of the ray-finned fish (class actinopterygii)?
fins
swim bladder
gill
121
What key characteristic in the ray-finned fish allows them to stop swimming and not sink?
Swim bladder
122
Describe the key characteristics of nematodes.
unsegmented, cylindrical bodies a complete digestive system
protective cuticle that they periodically molt
123
What types of nematodes contribute to disease?
roundworms, hookworms, pinworms, filarial worms
124
What are some examples of diseases caused by nematodes?
ascariasis (roundworm)
hookworm infections,
125
What are the key derived characteristics of the lineage of fish?
bony endoskeleton
paired fins
gills
swim bladder
126
What does it mean to be a lobed fin fish?
the sister group to the ray-finned fishes
127
What groups share lobed fin fish as a common ancestor?
tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals), lungfishes, and coelacanths.
128
Describe the key characteristics that are common among all reptilian lineages.
Vertebrates
scaly skin
internal fertillization
ectothermic (cold-blooded)
amniotic development
lungs
scales
129
Describe the key characteristics of the class Aves.
Warm blooded
Feathers
hard-shelled eggs
lightweight skeleton with hollow bones
having beaks instead of teeth
130
What characteristics allow birds to fly?
feathers
beak w/ no teeth
wings
hollow bones
131
What are the key derived characteristics of mammals?
mammary glands
hair or fur
a unique jaw structure with three middle ear bones
132
amniotes
tetrapod vertebrate animals
133
What was the evolutionary advantage of being an amniote?
Development of the amniotic egg
134
key characteristics of amniotes
terrestrially adapted egg
protected by amniotic membranes
a lack of a larval stage
135
evolutionary advantages of amniotes
ability to reproduce on land
amniotic egg
lack of dependency of water
136
How did these features allow for amniotes to colonize further inland away from water?
a shelled egg
keratinized skin
claws
137
Describe the features of an amniotic egg?
protective shell
several membranes that facilitate gas exchange waste removal
nutrient provision
138
Describe the key characteristics of arthropods
nvertebrate body plan with a segmented body, jointed appendages
hard, external exoskeleton
139
Describe the key characteristics of nematodes.
elongated, cylindrical
non-segmented bodies
a pseudocoelom (a body cavity not lined with mesoderm)
a complete digestive system
tough, collagenous cuticle that molts
140
What are the different types of mating systems seen in the animal kingdom?
monogamy (one male, one female)
polygyny (one male, multiple females)
polyandry (one female, multiple males)
promiscuity (multiple males and females mate randomly)
141
What are the characteristics of species that have monogamous mating systems?
pair bonding, shared parental care, and low sexual dimorphism
142
What characteristics do species have that have polygamous mating systems?
strong sexual dimorphism
intense male-male competition
resource-based mating strategies
143
What are the evolutionary drivers of the different mating systems seen in that animal kingdom?
ecological factors
parental investment
sexual selection
social dynamics
144
Why are most females choosy? What is the evolutionary basis for this?
Females are choosy because they will be carrying the offspring ---> Higher investment in offspring
145
Why would it be advantageous for a male to be territorial?
may permit an animal to mate without interruption or to raise its young in an area where there will be little competition for food
146
reciprocal altruism
occurs between unrelated individuals when there will be repayment of the altruistic act in the future
147
What conditions need to be in place for reciprocal altruism to occur?
repeated interactions, be able to recognize and remember each other
148
What are some examples of reciprocal altruism in the animal kingdom?
vampire bats sharing blood
dolphins helping injured companions
149
What is communication?
the transfer of information, often through signals or behaviors, between organisms or within an organism
150
What are the different forms of communication that can be used by animals?
visual signals
auditory signals (sounds)
chemical signals (pheromones)
tactile communication (touch)
electrical or vibrational signal
151
Example of visual communication
Mating display, Body language, Gestures
152
Example of audiory communication
Human speech, whale sound, bird chirps
153
Example of chemical communication
scent marking, alarm signals, Pheromones
154
Example of tactile communication
Infant care, grooming, touching during mating
155
Example of electrical communication
nerve signals, electroreception
156
How do altruistic behaviors between close relatives affect the individuals involved?
increasing the survival and reproduction of their relatives
157
What is classical conditioning?
a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a natural stimulus, leading to a learned response to the previously neutral stimulus
158
What is operant conditioning?
a learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by associating them with consequences, either adding or removing stimuli to increase or decrease the likelihood of those behaviors occurring again
159
Who is W.D. Hamilton? And what did he say about altruistic behaviors among kin?
British evolutionary biologist
altruistic behaviors are more likely to evolve when individuals help their genetic relatives
160
What conditions make it more likely to act altruistically toward someone?
positive moral rewards, a sense of satisfaction and happiness, and external factors
161
What is a sign stimulus?
a specific feature of a stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern (FAP)
162
What is a fixed action pattern?
A sequence of instinctive, unchangeable behaviors exhibited by animals in response to a specific external stimulus, triggered by a "sign stimulus" and continuing to completion regardless of changes in the stimulus
163
What are some examples of fixed action pattern behaviors?
a goose rolling an egg back into the nest
a stickleback fish attacking anything with a red belly
164
What is cognitive learning?
Method of learning that focuses on the mental processes rather than simply memorizing information
165
Is cognitive learning only seen in humans?
No
166
What is imprinting?
a form of learning in which a very young animal fixes its attention on the first object
167
How does this type of simple learning affect the development of offspring?
can lead to developmental and behavioral disorders if disrupted
168
What is the evolutionary advantage for offspring to imprint during their critical period?
enhances evolvability in a changing environment protects females against the ravages of invasive trophoblast
169
Are there examples of cognitive learning being exhibited by other animals?
yes; Ants use dead reckoning to locate their nests after convoluted foraging trips.
170
What are the ultimate and proximate causes of behavior?
Proximate causes explain how a behavior occurs (immediate mechanisms), while ultimate causes explain why a behavior evolved (adaptive value and evolutionary history)
171
Be able to give examples of these types of behavioral patterns.
human patterns like Type A personality or passive-aggressive tendencies.
172
Taxonomy of Living Things
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
173
Role of bacteria in bioremediation
Bacteria break down pollutants in soil and water
174
Role of bacteria of carbon cycle
Decomposer break down matter ---> releasing oxygen
175
Example of bacteria used in carbon cycle
Methanogens
176
Role of bacteria of nitrogen cycle
nitrogen fixing bacteria convert nitrogen to ammonia ---> nitrifying bacteria converted ammonia to nitrates ---> denitrfying bacteria return nitrogen to atmosphere
177
Which plant group has a dominant gametophyte generation?
Bryophytes
178
In ferns, which generation is dominant and larger in size?
Sporophyte
179
In seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms), what is the dominant generation?
Sporophyte
180
In gymnosperms and angiosperms, how does the gametophyte compare to the sporophyte?
The gametophyte is microscopic and dependent on the sporophyte
181
List three different phyla that contain unsegmented organisms and provide an example of each.
Platyhelminthes – Flatworms (e.g., Planaria)
Nematoda – Roundworms (e.g., Ascaris)
Mollusca – Snails and octopuses (e.g., Garden snail, Octopus)
182
What structure in the ovule contains the two polar nuclei that participate in double fertilization?
Central cell
