Exam 2 Review Flashcards
1
Q
How do animals avoid being seen
A
-choice of background (minimize contrast)
-cryptic coloration/shape (pattern as well as color)
-artificial camouflage
-rapid color change
2
Q
cryptic
A
mimic some aspect of the environment
3
Q
artificial camouflage
A
use the environment to manipulate your pattern/color to match the environment
4
Q
active camouflage
A
manipulate your pattern/color directly to match environment
5
Q
three ways of how to not be seen
A
1- color matching
2- pattern matching
3- break up pattern
6
Q
aposematic coloration
A
be dangerous and let predators know
-produce toxins (monarchs)
-toxins sequestered from food
7
Q
mullerian mimicry
A
2 or more distasteful or harmful organisms resemble each other
8
Q
batesian mimicry
A
defenseless species (mimic) is protected from predation by its resemblance to a species that is dangerous (toxic)
9
Q
behavioral mimicry
A
with mullerian or batesian they need to mimic behavior as well, so they look like other species
10
Q
warning behavior of edible prey
A
i see you, i can run faster so don’t even try
(stotting in ungulates)
11
Q
how are prey vigilant
A
-constantly watching for predators
-fast escape response
12
Q
what do lizards do if they are caught
A
drop their tails - relatively low cost compared to death
13
Q
why do some prey scream loudly after being caught
A
-response to pain receptors
-warns conspecifics
-elicits parental help
14
Q
minnow defense method
A
release chemical that attracts other predator and sometimes can escape both
15
Q
predation risk in ecological time
A
-predators influence foraging behavior (what to feed, eat, where, how)
-predators influence habitat selection and mate choice
16
Q
optimal foraging theory
A
individuals should maximize benefit/cost ratio
17
Q
what are the costs and benefits in optimal foraging theory
A
COSTS:
-time/energy spent locating food
-time/energy spent handling food
BENEFITS:
-calories gained
18
Q
T/F animals want to maximize the rate of energy gain and maximum net gain is the greatest slope at which animals will benefit the most
A
true
19
Q
How do organisms reduce costs of the optimal foraging theory
A
minimize time spent looking and handling food
-develop search image for common prey
-excel at capturing prey (power amplification)
20
Q
costs of predation/parasitism on foraging
A
leaf-cutter ants and parasitoid fly
-variation in worker size leads to variation in energy gained/used efficiency
-most efficient sizes and most frequent foragers ONLY AT NIGHT
21
Q
why does the risk of the parasitoid fly during the day change costs for large workers
A
they are more susceptible to parasitism, so they forage at night when flies aren’t present
22
Q
power amplification
A
(latches and springs)
-most animal movement is limited by muscle contraction
23
Q
what are the two common foraging strategies
A
active predators (hunters)
-speed
-visual/olfactory cues
-maximize caloric intake
-must be successful, cannot miss
sit and wait (ambush)
-visual cues
-movement
-minimize energy input
24
Q
what is the star-nosed mole
A
rodent with so many sensors that allow them to identify and process small arthropods VERY efficiently
-otherwise not profitable for most insectivores
25
what is considered the third foraging strategy
hunt in groups
-larger the group, less nutrients per animal
26
how can animals maximize the benefits of prey
-strategies can change with age/size
-increase caloric intake relative to expenditure (be selective)
27
symbolic communication
communication of environmental information that has been coded and transmitted
28
what did Karl von Frisch initially believe about honeybees
bees used flower scents or other odors to find food sources
-pay attention to dances
29
round dance
when food source is less than 50m from hive
30
waggle dance
when food sources is over 50m away from hive
31
waggle run
-abdomen wagging and wing fluttering
-angle repeated with respect to vertical or gravity
32
T/F the angle between vertical and waggle run = angle between sun and food source
true
33
scouts and recruits of waggle dance
SCOUTS:
find new food sources and dance
-stop and provide samples of food to audience
RECRUITS:
follow dances and then forage
34
components of waggle dance
1- DIRECCTION: angle of waggle run
2- DISTANCE: number of waggles per run/dance tempo
3- QUALITY: duration of dance
4- TASTE AND SMELL: dancer givers free samples
35
Wenner olfactory map hypothesis
bees use smells and tastes from returning foragers to locate food sources
-when odor carried by forager provided at all plates, bees preference disappeared
36
Gould's definitive experiment
bright light placed above the hive; bees will orient their dances with respect to the light instead of with respect to gravity
37
what did Gould's definitive experiment show
recruits followed dance and arrived at location specified by dance where the scout had never been before
38
Apis florea recruitment
-horizontal dances
-orient waggle run directly at food source (pointing)
-less sophisticated form?
39
3 types of recruitment of stingless bees
SIMPLE (some Trigona):
-foragers arouse nestmates with high-pitches buzzing
-foragers carry floral odor
-nestmates leave in search of same floral odor
INTERMEDIATE (other Trigona):
-Pheromone marking by forager at foraging site and on trail
-at nest, forager makes buzzing sounds to attract recruits
-recruits follow forager back to site, guided by pheromones
MORE ADVANCED (Melipona):
A) direction - forager does short zig-zag flight in direction of food source
B) distance - pulses of sound produced while dancing
C) height - sounds made while unloading food inform recruits of height of food
40
contributions of Lindauer
comparative studies with other species of social bees
-evidence for how dance language evolved
-Apis Florea
41
Ideal Free Distrbution
individuals should distribute themselves among habitats so that every individual maximizes its net rate of return
-only benefiting
42
homerange
area which an individual, pair, or group occupies or regularly returns to (might defend)
43
core area
area of harvest use, may center in a resource (nest, water, food source)
44
territory
any defended area (if there is a cost to losing it); area of more or less fixed boundaries from which rival conspecifics are excluded through AGGRESSION
45
Lek
a communal mating area in which individuals hold small territories solely for courtship and copulation
46
dispersal
ecological process affecting distribution
-leaving an area of birth or activity; largely a short-range effort but can also be long range
-ONCE in a lifetime event
47
what is the choice of dispersal
stay in the safety of home (the tendency for offspring to breed in their natal home range - philopatry)
OR
disperse and take chances, high mortality but high payoffs
48
juvenile dispersal
hatching juveniles or fledglings leave their natal area
-mostly short, but can be long range
49
long range dispersal
can occur naturally - unintentional or intentional by humans
50
what are the cons of dsipersal
-incredible energetic costs
-moving animal may be at greater risk of predation
-outbreeding depression
51
why do juveniles of most species tend to disperse despite the costs
-interbreeding avoidance
-reduce competition with relatives
-colonization of new habitat
52
sex-biased dispersal
kin avoidance mechanism
-because dispersal entails costs, both senses of progeny need not disperse to dramatically lower the probability of interbreeding
53
orientation
the use of external cues to move about the environment (visual - landmarks)
54
navigation
more involved - need to know where you are relative to where you want to be in addition to a "compass sense" (appropriate direction)
55
migration
distinct from dispersal - migratory animals typically move from one geographic region to another, without using the intervening habitat
-movements often associated with particular season and tied to the reproductive cycle
56
why are animals territorial
access to shelter, nest sites, food, and mates
57
introduced species
species introduced deliberately or accidentally from somewhere else
58
why are some species philotrapic
tendency for offspring to breed in their natal home range -- know they have access to mates, nest sites, food
59
asexual reproduction
process of creating new individual using ONE parent organism
-offspring genetically identical to their parent
-binary fission, budding, parthenogenesis
60
parthenogenesis
asexual repro which gamete (haploid) develops without fertilization
61
what species is asexual reproduction not found in
all groups of vertebrates EXCEPT mammals
62
two-fold cost of sex
for sexual organisms, only half of genes are passed to next generation
-in asexual they are all identical to one parent and can reproduce
-in sexual half of the population are males
-sexuals will reproduce 2 times slower
63
why is sexual reproduction costly
-gonads are expensive to maintain/reproduce
-mating is risky (injury/disease)
-recombination breaks up beneficial combinations of alleles at different loci
64
gametic sex
small gametes - male
large gametes - female
65
genetic sex
SRY locus (sex determining)
-males = haploid
-females = diploid
66
chromosomal sex
XX vs XY
67
gonadal/genitalia sex
ovaries vs. testes
68
T/F males on the same side as male sin the ovary will make them more aggressive and a female on a side with males will be too
true
69
dioecious
separate sexes in separate individuals
70
hermaphrodites
simultaneous - both male/female
sequential - sex can change
71
two forms of sexual reproduction
meiosis - process by which diploid organisms produce haploid gametes
syngamy - the fusion of two haploid gametes to produce diploid zygote
72
anisogamy
differences in size between two gametes
73
T/F sex = recombination
true
74
recombination
genetic variation
75
advantages of sex
-genetic variation needed for continuing generations
-deleterious mutation and drift
-faster adaptive evolution
-resistance to disease
76
mullers ratchet model
in asexual populations, mutations will accumulate in lineages because there is no recombination
-cannot get rid of deleterious mutation
77
hermaphroditism
produce both male and female gametes
78
anisogamy
bigger gametes (increase zygote size/survival)
-eggs, expensive, costly
smaller gametes (increase potential development number of offspring)
-sperm, inexpensive, non-costly
79
Do both strategies of anisogamy increase reproductives potential
yes, just differently
80
genomic imprinting
effects (gene products) of a gene differ depending on whether inherited from mother or father
(same genotype might result in different phenotype/behavior)
81
how do we know if a trait is due to sexual selection
-sexual dimorphism
-change in growth rate during development
-positive allometry
-costly
82
two forms of sexual selection
intrasexual (within species)
-competition for access to mates
-male competition
interspecific (between species)
-choosing between potential mates
-females choosing among mates
83
how do males increase their reproductive success (pre-mating competiton)
-scrambles
-endurance contests
-fights
84
male mating strategies
monogamy
polygyny
sneaking
85
monogamy
-one mate (season, lifetime)
-parental investment high
-territorial of area
-female enforced
86
polygyny
-many female mates, one male
-parental investment low
-sexual dimorphism
-territorial (area or harem)
-lek
87
sneaker or satellite males
-less investment in territory/aggression
-often use deception
-mating opportunities when possible, but not competing for them
88
T/F the best strategy is always the rarest (organizational-activation theory)
true
-hormones in females (mothers) assessing strategies in generation and planning for her next generation
89
sperm competition
post-copulatory competition
-when females mate with more than one male, competition for fertilizations does not end with securing mating event
90
sperm precedence
the last male to mate often fertilizes the most eggs
91
mate guarding
increase likeliness for him to fertilize with him being the last
92
nuptial gifts (precopulatory)
to increase length of mating or decrease probability of female mating again
(large food reward->they will mate longer)
93
female sperm choice (postcopulatory)
active choice by females in which sperm to use
-mate with multiple males-mechanisms to digest, eject or use
94
Scrubbers (sperm removal) during copulation
remove previous male sperm
95
sperm production (during copulation)
increase sperm production or length to block other sperm from entering
96
T/F there are elaborations of the penis for pleasure that woman choose
true
97
which of these are precopulatory, during copulation, and postcopulatory
precopulatory
-nuptial gifts
during copulation
-sperm production or removal
postcopulatory
-mate guarding
-female sperm choice
98
secondary sexual characteristics
-physical/behavioral characteristics that appear in sexually mature animals
-differentiate between the sexes without having direct reproductive function (horns, color patterns)
99
why are females more selective than males
they want to produce good offspring
-exaggerated ornaments will be selected (longer tail=more attractive)
100
four theories for evolution of ornaments and female preference
healthy mates
-indicative of male health
-females and offspring avoid diseases and parasites
good genes
-indicative of male viability
-offspring may inherit the viability advantages of their father
runaway selection
-sexually attractive
-sons inherit trait that makes them attractive; females become attracted to that trait
chase-away selection
-exploitative of preexisting sensory biases
-no benefit by female
101
direct benefit
indicator mechanism/honest signal
(healthy mate, high quality)
102
indirect benefit
good genes "sexy son"
103
the Fisher process
runaway sexual selection
-trait starts by conferring an advantage (slightly longer tail = better flight)
-preference for the trait that confers advantage evolves
104
indicator mechanisms and honest signaling can be considered...
direct benefits
105
what are examples of direct benefits
handicap principle
-signals are expensive to produce and can be costly, so accurate information is conveyed
-secondary sexual characteristics (color, feathers) are easier to spot
Hamiliton/Zuk
-signals allow for accurate assessment of parasite load of males
-larger signal - small amount of parasites
106
what can good genes, "sexy son" be described as
indirect benefits (female)
-females choose males with particular traits so their male offspring will later be preffered
107
what does the Fisher process lead to
runaway process
-the preference continues though the exaggerated trait no longer confers a fitness advantage
108
polyandry
-one female and many male mates
-resource defense
-typically involves sex-role reversal
-males incubate eggs and care for the young
109
promiscuity
happening sporadically, doesn't fit into any category
110
T/F social monogamy is rare in mammals, but common in birds
true because embryos develop in mammals and externally in birds which allows for earlier male parental care
111
mating frequency in birds
monogamy - 92% of all birds
polygyny - 2% of all birds
polyandry - fewer than 1%
promiscuity - 6% of all birds
112
what mating system in birds is male participation essential for successfully raising young birds
monogamy
113
polygyny threshold model
a males territory quality will be correlated with his mating success
-polygyny should be more common in patchy environments (where there is more variation in territory quality)
114
lek
a particular spot where males go to aggregate ad females can watch and pick and choose a mate
115
what are the conditions for a lek
hot spots - males gather at sites where females are more likely to congregate
-reduced predation
-greater resources
-amplify sexually selected characteristics
hot shots - females prefer to choose mates from aggregations of males
116
lek paradox
since most females usually mate with one male, why do other males bother to come to the lek
117
what are the conditions of females in polyandry
-abandon nests and lay more clutches
-males that care for clutches (alone), have more nestlings survive
-females that defended resource-based territories attracted more males and have more offspring
118
what species do extra-pair copulations (EPCs) occur in and what is it
occur in
-monogamous species
these species copulate outside of their pair-bond but still involved in parental care
119
benefits and costs of EPCs for males
benefits
-increased fitness
-possible future male acquisition
-insurance against males' infertility
costs
-sperm depletion and ejaculate production costs
-increased risk of cuckoldry
-reduction in parental care
-increased likelihood of divorce
120
benefits and costs of EPCs in females
benefits
-fertility insurance
-genetically diverse young
-improved genetic quality of young
-access to resources
costs
-male retaliation
-risk of injury
-harassment from extra-pair males
