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BI101 > Exam 2 Review > Flashcards

Exam 2 Review Flashcards

1
Q

Cancer

A

Disease that occurs when a cell replicates unregulated

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2
Q

Differences between cancer cell and normal cell

A

Cancer cells are damaged or altered in some way that allows them to bypass normal checks and balances within the body

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3
Q

Mitosis

A

Type of cell division where one parent cell divides to form two identical daughter cells

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4
Q

Tumor

A

lump of cells that forms due to unregulated cell division

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5
Q

Benign

A

Tumors that stay in one place and don’t affect other areas

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6
Q

Malignant

A

tumors that infiltrate surrounding tissues

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7
Q

Metastasis

A

cells from a malignant tumor break off and start cancer in new areas

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8
Q

What organelle is important in cancer?

A

The nucleus

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9
Q

Risk factors for cancer

A

Inherited (genetic)
Environmental (carcinogens) like UV rays and smoking

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10
Q

How metastasis works

A

Blood vessels send out extensions to the tumors, which allows tumor cells to travel to other parts of the body

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11
Q

Angiogenesis

A

The process that tumors use to make the body provide nutrients

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12
Q

Apoptosis

A

A cellular version of suicide. Cancer cells do not apostatize, meaning they accumulate mutations rapidly

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13
Q

3 ways that cancer cells spread

A

a) Transcoelomic: malignant cells enter peritoneum in body cavities
b) Lymphatic: cancer invades the lymph nodes and travels through the lymphatic system, which empties into the blood system
c) Hematogenous: Cancer cells invade blood vessels

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14
Q

Chromosomes

A

structures created when DNA in the nucleus of a cell is wrapped around proteins

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15
Q

Sister chromatids

A

Two halves of the replicated chromosome, connected at the centromere

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16
Q

Semiconservative DNA replication

A

process by which two identical daughter molecules are produced with half parental DNA and half new DNA

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17
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

Enzyme that facilitates DNA replication

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18
Q

Somatic cells

A

Any body cells that do not produce sex cells (gametes)
Mitosis occurs in somatic cells

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19
Q

Phases of mitosis

A

Interphase (G1, S, G2)
Mitosis (PMAT)
Cytokinesis

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20
Q

Interphase

A

The phase cells spend the most time in
G1: organelles duplicate, cell grows larger
S: DNA replication
G2: cell continues to grow and prepare for division

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21
Q

Prophase

A

first part of mitosis. Chromosomes condense, microtubules form, nuclear envelope breaks down, centrioles anchor microtubules

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22
Q

Metaphase

A

second part of mitosis. Chromosomes align single file at equator

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23
Q

Anaphase

A

third part of mitosis. Halves of sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles by microtubules

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24
Q

Telophase

A

nuclear envelope reforms around new daughter cells

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25
Cytokinesis (mitosis)
division of the cytoplasm. In animal cells, proteins pull apart the two nuclei. In plant cells, a new cell wall is formed.
26
Proto-oncogenes
Genes involved in normal cell division and growth. They are oncogenes before mutation
27
Oncogenes
Genes that have the potential to cause cancer
28
Tumor-suppressor genes
genes that inspect and regulate newly replicated DNA
29
Cancer treatments
a) chemotherapy-chemicals kill dividing cells b) radiation therapy-high energy particles are aimed at the spot where the tumor was removed c) immunotherapy-uses the immune system to target cells with cancer cell markers
30
purpose of DNA replication
DNA replication involves splitting the helix down the middle and adding new nucleotides to each side, a process carried out by the enzyme DNA polymerase.
31
Haploid vs. Diploid cells
Haploid cells have only one member of a homologous pair (one part from mother OR one part from father). They have 23 unpaired chromosomes (egg and sperm cells) Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes, 23 homologous pairs
32
homologous chromosomes
pairs of chromosomes with the same genes but potentially different alleles. One member of each pair was inherited from the mother, the other from the father. Before replication, they are one strand each, after, they are two strands (x shape) each Present in somatic cells
33
Phases of meiosis
Interphase (G1, S, G2) Meiosis 1 Cytokinesis Meiosis 2 Cytokinesis
34
Purpose of meiosis 1
Separates homologous pairs from each other. Results in 2 cells
35
Purpose of meiosis 2
Separates sister chromatids from each other. Results in 4 daughter cells with individual chromatids
36
Karyotype
the complete set of chromosomes in an individual
37
Autosomes
Non-sex chromosomes (22 pairs)
38
Sex chromosomes
X and Y chromosomes (1 pair)
39
Crossing over
homologous pairs exchange small amounts of genetic information during prophase 1.
40
Random alignment
Unique to meiosis 1. Homologous pairs align randomly in regards to which member is facing which pole
41
Nondisjunction
Homologous pairs fail to separate during anaphase 1
42
Turner Syndrome
Result of nondisjunction females are born with only one X chromosome
43
Klinefelter Syndrome
Result of nondisjunction Males are born with 2 X and 1 Y chromosome
44
Dominant vs recessive traits
Dominant traits are expressed even if a different recessive trait is present. Recessive traits are only expressed if there is no dominant trait
45
Genotype vs phenotype
The genotype is the total genetic makeup of a person, the phenotype is the expressed traits
46
Genotypic ratio
A:B:C (ratio of each possible genotype outcome, including outcomes with 0 chance)
47
Phenotypic ratio
A:B (ratio of expressed vs not expressed, like albino or not albino)
48
Genetic variation
the result of copying and transmitting genes from one generation to the next
49
Independent assortment
each gene is inherited independently of other genes
50
Random fertilization
gametes combine without regard to the alleles they carry (any sperm can combine with any egg)
51
Homologous pair
one set of maternal and one set of paternal chromosomes with the same genes but potentially different alleles
52
Heterozygous
individual carries 2 different alleles for the same gene (Rr)
53
Homozygous
individual carries same 2 alleles for the a gene (RR)
54
Carrier
heterozygotes for a recessive allele/disease
55
Incomplete dominance
phenotype of a heterozygote is in between the two homozygotes (a flower is pink rather than red or white)
56
Codominance
two different alleles are displayed at the same time (red and white spots)
57
Multiple alleles
there are more than 2 alleles of a gene within a population (3 blood types)
58
Pleiotropy
One gene influences 2+ traits
59
Sex-linked genes (X-linked and Y-linked)
conditions that are more common in either males or females (color blindness is an X linked trait)
60
Genotypes for each blood type
O: ii A: I^Ai, I^AI^A B: I^Bi, I^BI^B AB: I^AI^B
61
Universal donor and universal recipient
Type O is universal donor: no markers means no interactions Type AB is universal recipient, can receive any blood type
62
Pedigree
Family tree that follows the inheritance of a trait for generations
63
Single gene vs polygenic inheritance
Single gene inheritance requires only one on-off gene Polygenic traits are influenced by more than one gene
64
Quantitative traits
Polygenic and interact with the environment eg. height Exist on a continuous variation (bell curve)
65
Features of bell curve
Highest point: mean Width: variance/variability (average distance from any individual to the mean) Low variance=similar appearance within a population for that trait
66
Heritability
Determines the role of genes in determining a quantitative trait Uses correlations between individuals with varying genetic similarity
67
Identical vs fraternal twins
identical: monozygotic (develop from one zygote, cells in embryo split) identical genetics fraternal: dizygotic (2 separate zygotes)
68
DNA profiling
uses differences in DNA sequence go identify people hones in on 13 Short Tandem Repeaters (STRs)
69
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
process to amplify cells, heat denatures DNA and breaks hydrogen bonds, creates 2 strands of DNA
70
Main processes that contribute to genetic diversity
a) gene mutation creates genetic diversity b) segregation (separating pairs of alleles during meiosis) and independent assortment create gamete diversity c) random fertilization
71
Protein synthesis
The process of converting DNA into proteins, using the instructions carried by a gene 2 stages: transcription and translation
72
DNA
Polymer of nucleotides A,T,C, and G Sugar is deoxyribose Double helix
73
RNA
Ribonucleic acid, result of a gene being copied from DNA Single strand polymer of nucleotides A,C, G and U (uracil)
74
Gene
Sequence of DNA that encodes a protein
75
Transcription
DNA->mRNA DNA gene is copied into RNA by RNA polymerase RNA polymerase binds to beginning of gene (promoter) and unzips the DNA in nucleus RNA nucleotides match with DNA nucleotides and exit the nucleus DNA winds back up
76
Translation
RNA sequence is decoded and protein is produced mRNA is threaded between large and small ribosome subunits mRNA codons bind to tRNA anticodons, forming a peptide bond Ribosome adds tRNA amino acid
77
rRNA
ribosomal RNA Makes up ribosomes
78
tRNA
Transfer RNA Carries one specific amino acid
79
Codon
Sequence of 3 mRNA nucleotides that code for a particular amino acid that matches a tRNA anticodon
80
Anticodon
3 tRNA nucleotides that complement a codon
81
Stop codon
Codon that does not code for an amino acid
82
Genetic code
The set of rules used by cells to translate genes into proteins In the form of nucleotide triplets 64 codons, 61 code for amino acids
83
Properties of the genetic code
Redundant (the same amino acid can be coded for by more than one codon) Unambiguous (no codon can call for more than one amino acid at once) Universal (same gene=same protein across organisms)
84
Mutations and outcomes
Changes in the nucleotide sequences of DNA -no change (neutral mutation) -non-functional mutation -different function
85
Substitution mutations
One nucleotide is replaced with another nucleotide
86
Frameshift mutation
Addition/insertion or deletion of a nucleotide Changes the reading frame by shifting codon groups
87
Cloning
Creating many copies of a gene Used to make recombinant proteins
88
Steps of cloning to make recombinant proteins
1. remove the gene from the organism using restriction enzymes 2. insert the gene into the plasmid of a bacteria, where the plasmid and gene will reform into a new plasmid, now a recombinant gene 3. insert into the bacteria cell, and injected into the original organism
89
Transgenic organism
Organism with a gene from another species in its genome
90
CRISPR
clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats Ability to directly alter, delete, or replace a DNA sequence 1. Guide to find DNA sequence 2. Enzyme to cut out and replace DNA
91
Stem cells
Undifferentiated cells with no specific purpose Can be embryonic or adult Adult stem cells serve to replace and maintain tissues
92
Gene therapy
the process of replacing defective genes with effective ones
93
Gel electrophoresis
process of separating short tandem repeaters (STRs) and putting them in agarose gel. When an electric current is applied, the segments separate based on size and create a DNA fingerprint.

BI101 (7 decks)

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