Exam 2 Chapter 5 Flashcards
Twin studies and environment vs genes (3)
1) Greater correspondence between mono/dizygotic twins, and greater difference between dizygotic and siblings.
2) Genetics and environment both were contributing factors to sex-typed behavior, but genetic was stronger for F
3) Atypical behavior was moderately genetic, substantially environmental, also stronger for F
What is an argument for environment and twins?
Identical twins are put into an environment that looks specifically and similarities (self-fufulling prophecy)
Aggression and Biology (2)
1) Monozygotic are more likely than dizygotic,
2) Genetics accounted for 40% of antisocial behavior (delinquency, criminal behavior, behavioral aggression)
Adoption studies and bio
Bio rather than adopted show greater similarity in family functioning and antisocial behavior
Sex-related chromosomal abnormalities
An extra y chromosome on men might be at fault, but prison population doesn’t have extra y chromosome and parents who know may be biased
Conditions where there is some inconsistency between chromosomal sex and phenotypical sex
Intersex conditions (ambitious, or pats)
Genetic disorder resulting from a malfunction in the adrenal gland that results in prenatal exposure to high levels of hormones and lack of cortisol
(CAH) Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
CAH affects on gender (1, spatial and facial, 2, social behavior)
1) F who are exposed have better spatial skills, but boys with CAH have worse. CAH females and non CAH males are similar in response to facial emotions
2) CAH girls and males are similar in high aggression, CAH males and non no difference, same effect with CAH females and male toys
CAH and homosexuality
CAH majority is hetero but the degree of exposure is whats linked to homo, and none of this seems to be associated with gender identity problems
CAH and spatial skills explanation (3)
1) Self fulfilling prophecy- parents expect high levels of androgens and provide masculine toys.
2) Androgens promote active behavior which can lead to sports (masculine)
3) Androgens can affect areas of the brain that are linked to spatial skills, masculine behavior, and sexual orientation
What are three links to higher testosterone in prenatal amniotic fluid? (3)
1) Male typical play behavior in f and m
2) greater lateralization of language in m and f
3) less empathy
Testosterone applied to healthy women in study did _____
improved mental rotation
Men who received testosterone in economics game were_____
less generous, and higher levels of punishment w/ competitor
CAIS (Androgen insensitivity) and normal f
no difference in gender related or personality traits. This case supports that hormones override genetics (cut out testes keep vag)
Estrogen studies and prenatal exposure
There seems to be no difference, however, more exposure has larger effect. Also there are different critical periods. M may feel the overwhelming pressure to adhere to M role
Hemispheres of brain F and M
Women’s brains are more bilateral (easy to cross over), men are more lateralized (distinct functions)
Corpus Callosum and Gender
Women might have a larger one than men
Hypothalamic Nucleus and Gender Identity
M to F trans had this more similar to F
Although the differences are not 100% twin studies show genes play a role in ____, _____,and _____.
Sex differences, gender-related behavior, social behavior
The strongest evidence for links of sex hormones to cognition and behavior is in research that has show
Prenatal exposure to male hormones (androgens) is associated with enhanced spatial skills and male gender-role behavior in women
The major problem with most studies in the relations of hormones to behavior are
Correlational, thus cause and effect cannot be established. Some recent studies have begun to manipulate hormones, specifically testosterone
Studies of the brain have shown sex differences in
Structure
In sum, biological theories leave open to the explanation that
There is much variability in the behavior of M and F
According to evolutionary psych, men act to ensure ___ and women to ____
Paternity, survive
Ev. Psych states that successful reproduction for M is to and F is __. How is this contradicted (2)?
Men for fertilize as many (young) women to pick good father. Research shows similar sex partners and both preferring long lasting relationship. Also people have sex without reproduction
Aggression and evolution
Aggression is substantial, consistent, and most prominent in young men when in most competition. Criminal rates are the same in divorced, single men. Most crimes are about dominance or status and it is unclear whether women are a factor. Young women more likely and spouses than blood relatives. Stepparents abuse instead of blood
Hunter Gatherer Society
Men had to be more aggressive to hunt and spatial skills and geographic knowledge explained and women object location for house skills
What are two limitations of evolution and psychology
Homosexuality, adoption, and suicide, individual or cultural differences in behavior
Evolutionary psych is (i…)
Interactionalistic, cultural factors can override earlier evolved tendencies
Develops within 3-6 years of age, and boys and girls discover their genitals and become aware that only boys have a penis
Phallic stage
Boys fear castration from fathers and learn to repress feelings towards mother and shift identification to fathers
Oedipal complex
Girls are sexually attracted to their fathers and blame their mothers for a lack of penis
Electra complex
Why is it harder to overcome the Electra complex rather than oedipal?
Because men have a greater threat and women are of inferior status
What are two criticisms of Freud
1, he works on the unconscious
2, studies participants had sought Freud out for therapy
How did Horney differ from Freud (5)
She argued that it was social rather than biological, that the envy was for the power of men not penis, and that men envy breasts the ability to bear children. She also believed men perceive women to be inferior to elevate status and men need to prove masculinity through intercourse
What is the object relations theory
Family structure and child’s early social experiences rather than unconscious determine sexuality. Women are caretakers and therefore primarily responsible for gender roles. Applicable to both M and F
According to Chodorow how do girls acquire their gender identity?
Girls connect with who they’ve already attached to-mom. This explains why females focus o f relationships and define through connection with others. Later girls have trouble finding connection with men
According to Chodorow, how do boys acquire gender identity?
Boys reject the one who they have been attached to (individuating self from mom) Males learn to repress and define themselves through separation . They are masculine defined by not being feminine
How can gender roles change according to Chod
Men become caretakers
What are two reasons social factors play a role in cognition?
1) sex differences in math and science achievement may differ across cultures
2) sex differences in math have decreased over time
We learn behavior is modeled and reinforced
Social learning theory
Tendency for a person to reproduce the actions, attitudes, and emotional responses exhibited by real-life or symbolic models
Modeling, or observational learning
What are some supporting reasons for modeling aggressive behavior in men?
All video game characters are aggressive, M toys commercials and not F are aggressive, copycat killings
Why do people imitate aggressive behavior (2)?
It’s modeled to be appropriate, and it’s cognitively accessible
How does SLT provide for future research?
It shows that it’s teachable, and that environment has a large influence. Furthermore boys are better because they do more things with spatial ability
Reinforcement and aggression
More likely to be reinforced in M than F, even a smile or – punishment is still reinforcement, best option is to ignore
We model who? (3)
Same sex models with gender congruent behavior
Models who are reinforced
Models we like
Different people and objects in a child’s environment provide rewards and and models that shape behavior to fit gender role norms
Gender-role socialization
What are the indirect and direct forms of gender role socialization
In-modeling, direct- reinforcement
Response bias in gender role socialization of appearance
When spatial skills identified as measuring empathy FF did better and when spatial skills MF did better
As far as emotion F intend to _______ and males_____
Strengthen relationships, have power
Individualistic and Collectivist cultures and sex differences
Individualistic more differences, collectivist less
Parents treat sons and daughters more or less similar
More similar than different
How do parents treat F and M differently and with what age? (3)
Sex-typed toys, communicate differently with respect to emotions and younger children, because after awhile they react to individual components
Parents, neighbors, tv as social agents
Parents are less likely to be an influence because they acquire individuating info and the others are stronger social agents
Toys and cognition
Masculine toys have edu value so it may have impact on cognition
States that the roles that society assigns F and M are responsible for gender roles
Social Role Theory (bio is contributes)
Men’s role outside of home is to foster____ and women to foster_____
Agency, communion
Cross cultural research shows that ______. Younger children and F foster and boys with older fosters
Boys and girls are assigned different roles and that they lead to sex-typed behavior
Nurturance, egotistic dominance
Emphasizes the role that the child plays in interpreting the world. Child is active agents in gender role acquisition
Cognitive development theory
How does CDT support changing gender roles?
Its superficial. Long hair is girl whether M or F so it can change
Preference for the group to which one belongs
Evaluative
Learn about one’s own category and identify how two categories differ
Motivational
Limitation of Kohlberg
Gender constancy must be est. first but studies show that this was false
What are the two stages of CDT
Gender identity then constancy
Combines elements of SLT and CDT by recognizing that the child and the environment interact with one another to produce gender roles
Social Cognitive Theory
Explains how content of gender schema is acquired
SLT
Explains how people use schema to guide behavior
CDT
Relies on other categories besides gender to interpret the world
Aschematic people
Emphasizes the more proximal causes of sex differences, highlighting impact of situation
Deaux and Major model
Perceivers influence
Whether sex differences are observed through cognitive and behavioral confirmation
Whether sex differences are observed through self-verification and self-presentation
Targets influence
Features of the sit that influence the observance of sex differences are
Behavioral constraints, whether the sit calls for self-presentation, and the strength of ones views on the subject of interest
Process by which a perceivers expectation actually alters the targets behavior so the target comes to confirm the perceivers expectancy
Behavioral Confirmation
Idea that individuals see what they want to see
Cognitive confirmation
Someone who does not use the gender category as a guiding principle in behavior or as a guiding principle in behavior or as a way of processing
Gender Aschematic
Label determined by biological sex that is applied to either self or other people
Gender identity
Categorization of the self as male or female and the realization that this category cannot be changed
Gender constancy
Categorization of the self as male or female and the realization that this category cannot be changed
Gender constancy
Stereotypical enactment of male and female roles in romantic relationships
Heterosexual script
Conditions in which chromosomal sex does not correspond the phenotypic sec or there is an inconsistence within phenotypic sex
Intersex conditions
Localization of ability in one hemisphere of brain
Lateralization
Image of masculinity upheld by society that consists of toughness, dominance, emotional detachment, callousness towards women, eagerness o seek out danger, and competition
Masculine mystique
Aggressive behavior that is planned and socially motivated
Proactive aggression
Aggressive behavior that takes the form of an angry, impulsive response to threat or provocation
Reactive aggression
Category that contains info about the features of the cat as well as its association with other categories
Schema
Variable that describes the extent to which one is more concerned with self presentation or self verification
Self monitoring
Concern individuals have with how their behavior appears to others
Self presentation
Concern individuals have with behaving in ways consistent with their self concepts
Self verification
States that cognitive development is one factor in gender role acquisition but there are social influences as well
Social Cognitive theory
