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Anatomy > Exam 2- Chapter 22 > Flashcards

Exam 2- Chapter 22 Flashcards

1
Q

-body tissues supplied with oxygen, and CO2 waste must be disposed of
-most important function of the respiratory system

A

gas exchange

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2
Q

four processes involved with gas exchange

A

pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport of respiratory gases to/from tissues, internal respiration

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3
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

breathing, bringing air into and out of the lungs

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4
Q

gas exchange occurring in the lungs; oxygen brought in, carbon dioxide removed

A

external respiration

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5
Q

function of the cardiovascular system, not respiratory system

A

transport of respiratory gases to/from tissues

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6
Q

gas exchange occurring in the tissues; removing oxygen from the blood to enter body tissues and pushing carbon dioxide into the lungs to be removed- not part of the respiratory system

A

internal respiration

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7
Q

two zones of the respiratory system

A

conducting zone, respiratory zone

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8
Q

-respiratory passages leading from nose to the respiratory bronchioles
-transports air to and from the lungs

A

conducting zone

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9
Q

-actual site of gas exchange
-found in respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli

A

respiratory zone

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10
Q

major site of gas exchange

A

alveoli

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11
Q

makes up the upper conducting zone

A

nasal cavity and pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx)

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12
Q

air is warmed and humidified as it passes through this cavity before it gets to the lungs

A

nasal cavity

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13
Q

composed of goblet cells and seromucous nasal glands

A

respiratory mucosa in the mucous membranes of the nasal cavity

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14
Q

mucous-producing cells

A

goblet cells

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15
Q

-mucous portion traps particles and debris
-serous portion secretes watery fluid containing lysozyme- destroy pathogens stuck by mucous
-become overactive when you have a cold –> why you get stuffy

A

seromucous nasal glands

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16
Q

invading debris triggers a sneezing reflex to force it out

A

purpose of nerve endings in mucous membrane of nasal cavity

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17
Q

vascularization of mucous membranes of nasal cavity

A

capillaries and veins are located superficially to help warm air as it passes through

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18
Q

cause of nosebleeds

A

capillaries and veins sitting just under the mucous membrane of nasal cavity close to blood source

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19
Q

three regions of the pharynx

A

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

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20
Q

-contains pharyngeal tonsil and tubal tonsil
-closes during swallowing by soft palate and uvula

A

nasopharynx

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21
Q

-meets oral cavity at isthmus of the fauces
-contains palatine tonsils and lingual tonsils

A

oropharynx

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22
Q

where nasal passages and oral cavity first meet

A

isthmus of the fauces

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23
Q

where respiratory and digestive passages split

A

laryngopharynx

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24
Q

divides the laryngopharynx from the respiratory passages; prevents food and fluid from entering the respiratory system

A

lower conducting zone

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25
Q

three parts of the lower conducting zone

A

larynx, trachea, bronchi

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26
Q

cartilage flap that closes off the lower conducting zone; prevents things from “going down the wrong pipe”

A

epiglottis

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27
Q

-voice box
-composed of cartilage –> thyroid and circoid cartilage
-contains vocal cords

A

larynx

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28
Q

controls size and thickness of thyroid cartilage

A

hormones- testosterone causes it to become larger and thicker –> adam’s apple

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29
Q

sound production in larynx
-contains the glottis
-ligaments composed of elastic fibers that vibrate as we exhale to produce sound

A

vocal cords

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30
Q

open passageway surrounded by vocal cords

A

glottis

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31
Q

higher pitch/frequency

A

vocal cords are tight, vibrate faster

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32
Q

hormonal control of voice pitch/frequency

A

testosterone causes deeper pitch/lower frequency voice

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33
Q

increases loudness of voice

A

air passing across vocal cords with greater force –> higher amplitude

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34
Q

-composed of elastic fibers and cartilage rings

A

trachea (windpipe)

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35
Q

provide flexibility to trachea so it can stretch and relax while breathing

A

elastic fibers

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36
Q

importance of cartilage rings in trachea

A

-allow trachea to remain open all the time- important for breathing/ventilation
-prevents trachea from collapsing on itself after each exhale

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37
Q

smooth muscle tissue of trachea

A

trachealis

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38
Q

when the trachealis contracts

A

-diameter of trachea decreases
-trachea becomes more narrow
-forces air up and out of the body –> coughing reflexes

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39
Q

allow air to reach the respiratory zone

A

the bronchi

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40
Q

the trachea branches to form how many bronchi

A

2 main bronchi

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41
Q

bronchioles

A

bronchi branch about 20-25 times

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42
Q

terminal bronchioles

A

smallest of the bronchioles in conducting zone- actual exchange into lung tissue

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43
Q

organ where external gas exchange occurs

A

lungs

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44
Q

hilum

A

each lung has this- point at which the bronchi and any blood/nerve supply enter/leave the lung

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45
Q

composition of lungs

A

air space and elastic connective tissue

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46
Q

pulmonary artery brings oxygen-poor blood to lungs
- artery branches in a similar pattern as bronchi

A

pulmonary circulation

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47
Q

immediately surrounds alveoli
-where gas exchange actually occurs

A

pulmonary capillary network

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48
Q

moves oxygenated blood away from the lungs and back to the heart

A

pulmonary vein

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49
Q

bronchial arteries supply lung tissue with oxygenated systemic blood
-lung tissue cells get everything they need–> gas exchange, nutrients, etc.

A

bronchial circulation

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50
Q

nerve fibers enter the lungs here (at the hilum and bronchi)

A

pulmonary plexus

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51
Q

causes the air tubes in the lungs to dilate/become wider

A

sympathetic fibers of the lungs

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51
Q

causes the air tubes in lungs to constrict- become more narrow

A

parasympathetic fibers in lungs

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51
Q

covers thoracic wall and upper portion of diaphragm

A

parietal pleura

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51
Q

thin, double-layered serous membrane

A

pleurae

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51
Q

covers external lung features

A

visceral pleura

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52
Q

pleural fluid

A

fills cavity between visceral and parietal layers

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53
Q

creates chambers for each lung

A

each lung has its own pleura

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54
Q

benefits of each lung having its own pleura

A

-as organs move/shift with breathing –> pleural layers “slide over” one another- prevents abrasion
-prevents spread of infection from one organ to another

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55
Q

-first true structure of respiratory zone
-branch from the terminal bronchioles of the conducting zone
-lead into alveolar sacs composed of multiple alveoli

A

respiratory bronchioles

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56
Q

make up the walls of the alveoli

A

simple squamous epithelia- single layer of flattened cells helps for quick and efficient gas exhcnage

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57
Q

cover alveoli

A

capillary beds where gas exchange happens via diffusion down concentration gradient

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58
Q

connect neighboring individual alveoli

A

alveolar pores

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59
Q

three cell types of alveoli

A

type 1 alveolar cells, type 2 alveolar cells, alveolar macrophage

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60
Q

squamous epithelial cells
-function- create walls of alveoli –> where gas exchange occurs

A

type 1 alveolar cells

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61
Q

cuboidal cells scattered among type1 cells
function- secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins

A

type 2 alveolar cells

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62
Q

surfactant

A

slippery detergent-like substance
-prevents walls of alveoli from sticking together each time you exhale

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63
Q

innate immunity in alveoli

A

antimicrobial proteins

64
Q

mobile cells
function- consume debris, pathogens, etc. –> protect internal alveolar surfaces

A

alveolar macrophage

65
Q

2 processes involved with respiratory physiology

A

pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange

66
Q

the flow of air into and out of the lungs
- air flows according to a pressure gradient (high to low)

A

pulmonary ventilation

67
Q

the exchange of respiratory gases across the alveolar wall (external gas exchange- perfusion)

A

gas exchange

68
Q

3 gas laws that influence respiratory physiology

A

Boyle’s law, Dalton’s law of partial pressures, Henry’s law

69
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of its container

70
Q

atmospheric pressure at sea level

A

760 mmHg

71
Q

pressure in the lungs is described relative to __ __

A

atmospheric pressure

72
Q

pressure in the alveoli, changes as you inhale or exhale
-always equalizes Patm at some point

A

intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul)

73
Q

initiated by contraction of inspiratory muscles- change in volume of thoracic cavity

A

inspiration

74
Q

flattens during contraction and pulls down, accommodates for the increase in lung volume during inhalation
-skeletal muscle tissue

A

diaphragm

75
Q

pull ribs up and outward during contraction
-skeletal muscle tissue
-thoracic cavity becomes larger

A

intercostal muscles

76
Q

intrapulmonary pressure when the lungs increase in size

A

intrapulmonary pressure decreases relative to atmospheric pressure

77
Q

when inspiration ends because there is no longer a gradient

A

Ppul = Patm

78
Q

-mostly due to lung elasticity
-respiratory muscles relax and return to resting length
-elastic fibers of lungs recoil and lungs become smaller in size

A

expiration

79
Q

the amount of air that can be pushed into/out of lungs during ventilation

A

respiratory volumes

80
Q

normal volume of air that moves into and out of lungs during normal breathing
-in healthy individuals ~500 ml air

A

tidal volume (TV)

81
Q

amount of air that can be inspired forcibly past the tidal volume
-until you can’t get anymore air in
-~2100-3000 ml air

A

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

82
Q

amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled past the tidal volume
-until you can’t expire anymore
-~1000-1200 ml air
**not equal to the IRV because even when you breath out all the way there is still air left over

A

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

83
Q

amount of air left in the lungs after forced expiration
~1200 ml air

A

residual (reserve) volume (RV)

84
Q

the sum of two or more respiratory volumes
-better medical indication of respiratory capabilities

A

respiratory capacities

85
Q

total amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal volume expiration
= TV + IRV
-indicates inability to bring air into the lungs

A

inspiratory capacity (IC)

86
Q

amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration
= RV + ERV
higher value means you can’t expel as much air from the lungs

A

functional residual capacity (FRC)

87
Q

total amount of exchangeable air
= TV + IRV + ERV

A

vital capacity (VC)

88
Q

sits in lungs- is not exchangeable

A

why residual volume does not contribute to vital capacity

89
Q

the total amount of air the lungs can hold after a maximum inhalation
= IRV + TV + ERV + RV
healthy ~6 liters of air

A

total lung capacity (TLC)

90
Q

air that fills the conducting zone, but never contributes to gas exchange

A

dead space

91
Q

~150 ml air for a healthy individual
-1 ml air per pound of ideal body weight

A

anatomical dead space

92
Q

total volume of air used for gas exchange

A

~350 ml

93
Q

dead space in the respiratory zone
-air reaches the alveoli, but no gas exchange occurs due to damage or collapse of alveoli (respiratory diseases)

A

alveolar dead space

94
Q

anatomical dead space + alveolar dead space
“non-useful volumes”

A

total dead space

95
Q

the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted independently by each gas in the mixture

A

Dalton’s law of partial pressures

96
Q

account for 99% of Patm

A

nitrogen (79%, 597 mmHg) and oxygen (20.9%, 159 mmHg)

97
Q

the pressure of each individual gas in a mixture

A

partial pressure (PP)

98
Q

partial pressure of oxygen in alveoli

A

13.7% = 104 mmHg

99
Q

partial pressure of CO2 in alveoli

A

5.25% = 40 mmHg

100
Q

importance of knowing partial pressures of gases

A

see the pressure gradients that drive diffusion into or out of the blood

101
Q

a gas will dissolve in a liquid in proportion to its partial pressure

A

Henry’s Law

102
Q

higher partial pressure (henry’s law)

A

more gas dissolves in liquid

103
Q

best conditions for gas to dissolve

A

high pressure, low temperature, high solubility
ex- carbonated drink

104
Q

partial pressure of oxygen (henry’s law)

A

higher in the alveoli (gas) compared to the blood (liquid)

105
Q

-first factor affecting rate/efficiency of gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries
-Po2 in alveoli > Po2 in lung capillaries –> oxygen moves from alveoli into blood

A

partial pressure gradients and gas solubility

106
Q

why equal amounts of CO2 and O2 are exchanged between alveoli and blood

A

carbon dioxide is more soluble but oxygen is a smaller gas molecule and moves more quickly

107
Q

2nd factor affecting rate/efficiency of gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries
-respiratory membrane is very thin –> gas exchange occurs quickly

A

thickness and surface area of respiratory membrane

108
Q

greater surface area

A

greater amount of gas that can diffuse in a given amount of time

109
Q

alveolar surface area (HUGE)

A

~70m^2 = ~750 sq. ft.

110
Q

3rd factor affecting rate/efficiency of gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries
-optimal gas exchange results from equal amounts of gas reaching alveoli (via ventilation) and blood supply to pulmonary capillaries (via perfusion)

A

ventilation-perfusion coupling

111
Q

flow of blood through blood vessels

A

perfusion

112
Q

influence of Po2 on perfusion (occurring at the lungs)

A

low local Po2 –> local arterioles of those alveoli constrict
high local Po2 –> local arterioles of those alveoli dilate

113
Q

why low local Po2 makes arterioles constrict

A

blood is redirected to respiratory areas with high Po2 to ensure adequate O2 uptake

114
Q

why high Po2 makes arterioles dilate

A

area is flooded with blood –> takes up maximum amount of O2

115
Q

influence of Pco2 on ventilation

A

high local Pco2 –> bronchioles dilate
low local Pco2 –> bronchioles constrict

116
Q

why bronchioles dilate with high local Pco2 levels

A

CO2 is eliminated by the body faster
-important because increased CO2 affects blood pH

117
Q

alveolar gases are mostly made up of __ and __ __

A

CO2 and water vapors (composition)

118
Q

atmospheric gases are mostly made up of __ and __

A

nitrogen and oxygen (composition)

119
Q

why the composition of atmospheric and alveolar air are different

A

1- gas exchange occurring in alveoli
2- conducting passages humidify air
3- mixture of air in alveoli (reserve volume)

120
Q

diffusion of CO2 and O2 happen in __ directions

A

opposite directions

121
Q

transports oxygen (4 O2 per molecule)

A

hemoglobin

122
Q

arterial blood is __% saturated

A

98%

123
Q

venous blood is __% saturated

A

75%

124
Q

venous oxygen reserve

A

body tissue cells never use all the oxygen in arterial blood
-this allows us to have small changes in respiratory rate and HR without affecting body cells too much

125
Q

three ways carbon dioxide is transported

A

1- dissolved in plasma
2- bound to Hb
3- as bicarbonate ions in plasma

126
Q

how carbon binds to Hb

A

amino acids of globulin

127
Q

most influential/frequently used system to transport CO2

A

as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in plasma

128
Q

formation of bicarbonate ions

A

-CO2 diffuses into erythrocyte and combines with H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
-carbonic acid leaves erythrocytes and split to form H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate)

129
Q

causes the release of H+
-normally buffered by red blood cells which maintain the 7.35-7.45 pH of blood

A

conversion of CO2 to bicarbonate

130
Q

causes the blood pH to decrease

A

increase in CO2 in the blood

131
Q

respiratory acidosis

A

caused by slow, shallow breathing

132
Q

causes blood pH to increase

A

decrease in CO2 in the blood

133
Q

respiratory alkalosis

A

caused by rapid, deep breathing (hyperventilation)

134
Q

two areas that set the normal respiratory rhythm- determines rate and depth of breathing
-central nervous system control

A

Medullary respiratory center

135
Q

ventral respiratory group (VRG)

A

-concerned with changing the size of the thoracic cavity
-some neurons in this group fire during inspiration, others fire during expiration but they cannot fire at the same time

136
Q

-modifies rhythm set by VRG
-integrates information from other structures and delivers it to VRG
-communication center

A

dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

137
Q

interacts with medullary respiratory centers to “smooth” the respiratory pattern
-balances out transitions from inspiration to expiration

A

Pontine respiratory center (PRC)

138
Q

most potent and closely controlled factor measured by the CNS to determine breathing rate and depth

A

CO2

139
Q

an increase in Pco2 levels in blood
-decreases blood pH (respiratory acidosis)

A

hypercapnia

140
Q

a decrease in Pco2 levels in blood
-causes blood pH to increase (alkalosis)

A

hypocapnia

141
Q

stimulates increased ventilation

A

Po2 of arterial blood drops substantially

142
Q

strong emotion and pain send information from the hypothalamus and limbic system to respiratory centers

A

hypothalamic control

143
Q

excitation __ respiratory control

A

stimulates respiratory control

144
Q

we can override the respiratory centers to control our own breathing depth/rate- the conscious brain
-this only goes so far –> you cannot hold your breath forever

A

cortical controls

145
Q

adjustment to normal respiration during exercise

A

active muscles need large amounts of oxygen and produce large amounts of waste
-increase respiratory rate and depth

146
Q

ventilation increases 10-20x during exercise

A

hyperpnea

147
Q

group of conditions characterized by a physiological inability to expel air from the lungs
-is irreversible

A

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

148
Q

permanent enlargement of the alveoli and eventual destruction of their walls
-lungs lose elasticity

A

emphysema

149
Q

barrel chest

A

hyperinflation of alveoli

150
Q

chronic production of excess mucous due to inhaled irritants
-lower respiratory passages become inflamed over time and eventually fibrose

A

chronic bronchitis

151
Q

mucous not removed from lungs
bacteria and microorganisms thrive in stagnant mucous

A

cause of frequent infection in chronic bronchitis

152
Q

-similar to COPD
-temporary bronchospasm attacks followed by symptom-free periods

A

asthma

153
Q

most common form of asthma
-allergen causes inflammation of airways

A

allergic asthma

154
Q

causes inflammation in allergic asthma

A

IgE antibodies (histamine)

155
Q

treatment for asthma

A

inhaled corticosteroids (decrease inflammation) and or/ bronchodilators

156
Q

bacterial disease spread (primarily) by inhaled air
-mostly affects lungs but can spread to other organs too
-immune response contains bacteria to hardened nodules in lungs –> bacteria cannot cause infection

A

tuberculosis

157
Q

symptoms of active tuberculosis

A

fever, night sweats, weight loss, racking cough, coughing up blood

158
Q

characterized by temporary cessation of breathing during sleep
-results in constant fatigue –> leads to increased susceptibility to hypertension, heart disease, stroke, etc.

A

sleep apnea

159
Q

common forms of sleep apnea

A

obstructive sleep apnea
central sleep apnea

160
Q

occurs when upper airways collapse during sleep
-pharynx muscles relax during sleep –> airway sags and closes

A

obstructive sleep apnea

161
Q

respiratory centers of the brain “slack” during sleep –> breathing rhythm/rate not maintained

A

central sleep apnea

Anatomy (5 decks)

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