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Anatomy and Physiology 1 > Exam #2 > Flashcards

Exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 4 kinds of tissue?

A

epithelial, muscular, connective, and nervous system tissue

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2
Q

where is epithelial tissue found?

A

skin, lining of organs, and in glands

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3
Q

what are the two kinds of glands found in epithelial tissue?

A

exocrine glands and endocrine glands

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4
Q

what are exocrine glands?

A

these are glands that release something in a localized area

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5
Q

what are endocrine glands?

A

glands that move chemicals throughout the body and to one area like exocrine glands

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6
Q

what are some examples of exocrine glands?

A

sweat glands, salivary glands, breast milk

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7
Q

what are some examples of endocrine glands

A

testes, ovaries, pituitary glands most examples involve hormones

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8
Q

what are some examples of epithelial tissue?

A

skin….lining of organs….glands

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9
Q

what are some functions of epithelial tissue?

A

protection for scrapes and outside world

first form of immune defense (skin)

transport of chemicals

secretion

sensation….touch…pressure…pain

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10
Q

what are some examples of connective tissue?

A

bone…ligament…tendon…cartlidge…fat..blood

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11
Q

what is the difference between ligaments and tendons?

A

ligaments connect bone to bone and tendons connect muscle to bone

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12
Q

what is another word for fats?

A

adipose tissue

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13
Q

what are the functions of connective tissues?

A

separate organs…..provide structural support….the blood acts as a second line of defense for immune system….transport…energy storage…maintain homeostasis

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14
Q

what are some examples of muscular tissue?

A

skeletal….cardiac…smooth

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15
Q

what are the functions of muscular tissue?

A

movement…stability….contraction…controlling openings like throat and rectum…heat productions…transmitting electrical control….glycemic control

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16
Q

how does the muscular tissue help regulate glycemic control?

A

it converts excess sugar into energy which goes to into your muscle which makes you them contract

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17
Q

what are cardiac muscle tissue?

A

they control your heart beat…you can not directly control these like you can skeletal tissue

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18
Q

what are smooth muscle tissues?

A

are found in organs and contract automatically like cardiac muscles

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19
Q

what are some examples of nervous system tissues?

A

nerve endings called neurons….glial/neuroglial

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20
Q

what are the functions of the nervous system?

A

detect…transmit…respond…control body….perceiving

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21
Q

what do nerve endings/ neurons do?

A

use electrical impulses and chemical signals to transmit information between different areas of the brain, and between the brain and the rest of the nervous system.

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22
Q

what do glial/neuroglial do?

A

provide support, compose the myelin sheath, bring nutrients to neurons, and maintain homeostasis

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23
Q

what is a cell?

A

basic building block of life

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24
Q

what are the processes of a cell?

A

Cell metabolism….transport….communication…reproduction

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25
Q

what does the process of cell metabolism mean?

A

the cell must acquire energy and use it

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26
Q

what does the process of transport mean in the cell?

A

the cell must be able to move nutrients around the cell and move waste out

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27
Q

what does the process of communication mean in the cell?

A

the cell must have the ability to communicate with other cells around it to work together and maintain survival

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28
Q

what does the process of cell reproduction mean?

A

the cell must have the ability to reproduce and replace old or dead cells

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29
Q

What does the nucleus do in the cell?

A

protects the DNA and regulates growth and metabolism in the cell

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30
Q

what is the plasma membrane?

A

functions as a barrier to separate Intracellular fluid(ICF) and Extracellular fluid (ECF)

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31
Q

what is the purpose of the plasma membrane?

A

maintains a stable environment for the inside of the cell no matter what happens outside of it

lets certain molecules in

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32
Q

is the plasma membrane rigid or flexible?

A

flexible

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33
Q

what makes up the plasma membrane?

A

phospholipids

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34
Q

What is another word for ICF or Intercellular Fluid?

A

cytoplasm

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35
Q

what does the mitochondria do?

A

the primary function of the mitochondria is to convert ADP to ATP

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36
Q

what is transcription?

A

turning DNA to RNA

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37
Q

where does transcription occur?

A

inside the nucleus

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38
Q

what is translation?

A

turning RNA into a useable protein which is done by the ribosome

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39
Q

where does translation occur?

A

outside of the nucleus by ribosomes

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40
Q

what are ribosomes?

A

little guys outside of the cell that convert RNA to a

long protein chain

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41
Q

what does the rough Endoplasmic reticulum do?

A

he takes the long protein chain made by the ribosome and folds/shapes it to a certain structure

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42
Q

what does the Golgi apparatus do?

A

it takes the folded and shaped protein from the endoplasmic reticulum and packages it up and moves it around the cell

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43
Q

what is uncontrolled cell division?

A

cancer

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44
Q

how is a cancer cell formed?

A

when an error in the replication of a cell happens and goes unchecked by the cell cycles/checkpoints

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45
Q

what is apoptosis and when does it occur?

A

it is when the cell self destructs….self destruction occurs when a cell has been flagged as an error

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46
Q

what are the four characteristics of muscles?

A

extensibility….elasticity…excitableness..and contractibility

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47
Q

what is extensibility of muscle mean?

A

it can stretch and elongate without tearing

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48
Q

what is elasticity of muscle mean?

A

it can spring back to its original shape

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49
Q

what is excitability of muscle mean?

A

electric charges can stimulate contraction..found in heart

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50
Q

what is contractibility of muscle mean?

A

can move both up and down

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51
Q

what are the steps to building useable protein in the cell?

A

1) DNA to RNA….Transcription
2) RNA to Protein which is done by ribosomes….Translation
3) The ribosomes create a long protein chain
4) Protein chain is folded by the rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
5) The Golgi then packages and ships the protein around the cell

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52
Q

what is the integumentary system?

A

the skin

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53
Q

what is linking adjacent cells?

A

found in tissues where cells are linked together

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54
Q

what are the three kinds of adjacent cell linking?

A

tight junction, desmosome junctions, and gap junctions

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55
Q

what are tight junctions?

A

they are interlocked cells that are air tight and water tight…..construction is like a zipper

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56
Q

where are tight junctions found?

A

the skin

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57
Q

what are desmosome junctions?

A

anchoring cells together like buttons where water can flow through

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58
Q

where are desmosome junctions found?

A

in the intestines

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59
Q

what are gap junctions?

A

has small protein channels that allow energy charges to flow through…water can pass through

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60
Q

where are gap junctions found?

A

neurons, nerves, and muscles

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61
Q

what are the functions of the integumentary system?

A 
Immune barrier
Protects from scrapes and cuts
Keep water in the body
secretions of sweat and oils
excretion of waste like alcohol
thermoregulation
sensory perception
aids in vitamin d synthesis
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62
Q

how is the skin an immune barrier?

A

it blocks bacteria and viruses from entering your body from the outside….1st line of defense

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63
Q

how does the skin help with thermoregulation?

A

with vasoconstriction, vasodilation, hair on the body

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64
Q

what is vasoconstriction and when is it used?

A

vasoconstriction is making the veins near the skin smaller which keeps heat inside the body…this is done when you are cold

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65
Q

what is vasodilation and when is it used?

A

vasodilation is making the veins near the skin bigger which releases heat…this is done when you are hot

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66
Q

what puts your hair up when you are cold?

A

arrector pili muscles just under the skin`

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67
Q

what are the two layers of skin?

A

epidermis and dermis

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68
Q

what are the three layers of cutaneous membrane

A

epidermis, dermis, hypodermis

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69
Q

what is another word for the hypodermis?

A

subcutaneous tissue

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70
Q

what is the purpose of the epidermis?

A

to protect from abrasions, 1st barrier of the immune system, and prevents water loss

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71
Q

what gives your body finger prints?

A

the papillary layers interlockings with epidermis

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72
Q

what order are the layers of skin starting from superficially and going deep?

A

epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis which techniqually is not part of the skin

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73
Q

what layer of skin is avascular?

A

the epidermis

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74
Q

what does avascular mean?

A

that it gets no direct blood flow

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75
Q

what is found in the dermis layer of the skin?

A

sensory receptors, glands, hair follicles, blood vessels, dermal papillae, arrector pili

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76
Q

what are the two glands that are found in the dermal layer of skin?

A

sweat glands that secret sweat for cooling the body

Sebaceous glands that secrete sebum into hair follicles to lubricate skin and hair

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77
Q

what do the blood vessels inside the dermal layer do?

A

they provide nourishment for both the dermal layer and the avascular epidermal layer

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78
Q

what do dermal papillae do?

A

they hold the dermal and epidermal layer of skin together

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79
Q

what is responsible for creating finger prints on our hands?

A

the dermal papillae

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80
Q

what kind of junction is between the dermis and epidermis?

A

tight junction

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81
Q

what do the sensory receptors do?

A

help us sense and feel the outside world

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82
Q

what is the purpose of the subcutaneous/hypodermis?

A

contains fat cells that provide energy for the upper layers

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83
Q

is the epidermis layer alive or dead?

A

dead

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84
Q

is the dermis layer alive or dead?

A

alive

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85
Q

what are each layer of the epidermis called?

A

stratum

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86
Q

how often is the top layer of skin replaced?

A

every 25-30 days

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87
Q

what are keatinocytes?

A

the cells that compose the skin

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88
Q

what are the layers that are only compose of keratinocytes?

A

in the feet and hands stratum lucidum and stratum corneum

in the wrest of the body stratum corneum

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89
Q

what layer of the skin responsible for producing thick and where is this thick skin found?

A

stratum lucidum and is found on the hands and feet

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90
Q

what are melanocytes?

A

produce melanin that goes into keratinocytes which protects cells from UV light

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91
Q

what makes our skin darker?

A

melanin that is produced by melanocytes

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92
Q

what are dendritic cells?

A

the help build and provide immunity in the skin

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93
Q

why do keratinocytes die off?

A

they constantly get pushed to the surface….are avascular…get less and less nutrients as they move further and further from the dermis…they build a keratin shell that stops it from getting the necessary nutrients

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94
Q

what does keratin do to keratinocytes?

A

protects the cell, keeps water, and protects form UV light

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95
Q

what do merkel/tactile cells do?

A

have touch sensation

96
Q

what causes freckles?

A

increase melanin

97
Q

what causes moles?

A

increased melanocytes

98
Q

why does our tan go away?

A

because the keratinocytes that have increased melanin die off

99
Q

what does sloughing keratinocytes mean?

A

dying off skin

100
Q

what are the three kinds of skin cancer?

A

basal cell carcinoma, squamos, melanoma

101
Q

what is basal cell carcinoma?

A

skin cancer that is red, cratered centered, and is only on the basal layer

102
Q

what is squamos cancer?

A

skin cancer that is red, ulcerated, and found in the basal and spinosum

103
Q

what is melanoma cancer?

A

skin cancer that is brown and red, irregular borders, changing color, and is rare

104
Q

what layer does melanoma effect?

A

melanocytes

105
Q

why is melanoma so deadly?

A

it can quickly spread and go into your blood vessels and lymphatic system which then spreads it even further

106
Q

what are the three levels of burns?

A

1st degree, 2nd degree, and 3rd degree

107
Q

what are some characteristics of first degree burns?

A

redonning, sensitive to touch, and partial thickness

108
Q

what layer of skin if effected in first degree burns?

A

epidermis

109
Q

what are some characteristics of second degree burns?

A

partial thickening, blisters, bleeding, sensitive to touch, partial thickness

110
Q

what layers of skin are effected in second degree burns?

A

epidermis and dermis

111
Q

what is more painful of the degree burns?

A

second degree burns

112
Q

why are second degree burns more painful than third degree burns?

A

because in second degree burns nerves are still present where as in third degree burns the nerves have been burnt away

113
Q

what are some characteristics of third degree burns?

A

full thickening of skin

114
Q

what layers do third degree burns effect?

A

epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis

115
Q

what are complications of burns?

A

rapid fluid loss, dehydration, hypothermia, infections, clotting, loosing sensations

116
Q

what is the ABCDE of assessing moles for melanoma?

A 
A.symmetry
B.order
C.olor
D.iameter
E.volving
117
Q

does survival rate increase or decrease when percentage of body burned increases?

A

decrease

118
Q

what is used to asses the survival for third degree burn patients?

A

the rule of 9s and baux score

119
Q

what percent does a head account for?

A

9%….4.5% on the front and 4.5% for the back

120
Q

what percentage does the chest account for?

A

9%

121
Q

what percentage does the abs account for?

A

9%

122
Q

what percentage does one leg account for?

A

18%….9% on the front and 9% on the back

123
Q

what percentage does the arm and hand account for?

A

9%…4.5% on the front and 4.5% on the back

124
Q

what percentage does the genital region account for?

A

1%

125
Q

what percentage does the thoracic region accoun for?

A

9%

126
Q

what percentage does the lumbar and gluteal region account for?

A

9%

127
Q

how is the baux score calculated?

A

percentage of body burned + age

128
Q

what baux score is generally considered unsurvivable?

A

a score above 140

129
Q

what baux score is unsurvivable for children?

A

it does not matter children are treated no matter what

130
Q

what else can effect the baux score?

A

smoke inhalation

131
Q

what are the treatments for burns?

A

skin graphs…skin gun

132
Q

what are the functions of the skeletal system?

A

supports the weight of the body
protection of organs
storage site for marrows
movement due to the attachment site

133
Q

how does the skeletal system protect the organs?

A

our skull protects the brain and our rib cage protects heart and lungs

134
Q

how does the skeletal system help with storage for the body?

A

the bones store calcium in the bone

the bone also store yellow and red bone marrow

135
Q

what is yellow bone marrow?

A

fat storage in the form of triglycerides

136
Q

what is red bone marrow?

A

used to create red blood cells and is has more oxygen which is used for growth

137
Q

do children have more red or yellow bone marrow?

A

they have more red

138
Q

why do children have more red bone marrow than yellow bone marrow?

A

children have more red bone marrow because the red bone marrow has more oxygen which is vital for growth

139
Q

where is yellow bone marrow store in adults?

A

in the diaphysis or middle of the bone

140
Q

where is red bone marrow stored in adults?

A

in the epiphysis or the ends of bone

141
Q

what is bone deposition?

A

rebuilding bone

142
Q

what cell is responsible for bone deposition?

A

osteoblast

143
Q

what is bone resorbtion?

A

breaking down of bone

144
Q

what cell is responsible for bone resorption?

A

osteoclast

145
Q

how does the skeletal system help with movement?

A

the bones have tuberosities that give muscles a place to attach to the bones

146
Q

what is the medullary cavity used for?

A

storing yellow bone marrow

147
Q

where is the medullary cavity found?

A

in the middle of bones called the diaphysis

148
Q

what is inside of bone?

A

nerves, blood, vessels, marrow

149
Q

what are the two kinds of bone?

A

spongy and compact bone?

150
Q

what is on the outer part of bone?

A

compact bone followed by spongy

151
Q

what is bone composed of?

A

Collagen and Hydroxyapatite

152
Q

are collagen fibers organic or inorganic?

A

organic

153
Q

is hydroxyapatite organic or inorganic?

A

inorganic

154
Q

what makes collagen organic?

A

it is made up by the body

155
Q

what makes hydroxyapatite inorganic?

A

because we must get it from our diet

156
Q

what composes hydroxyapatite?

A

phosphorus and calcium

157
Q

what is the purpose of collagen in bone?

A

it gives bone flexibility to prevent breaking

158
Q

what is the purpose of hydroxyapatite?

A

it gives bones hardness and strength to prevent breaks

159
Q

what causes osteogenesis imperfecta?

A

happens when the bones do not have enough collagen in the bone which causes the bones to be extremely stiff and brittle

there are varying degrees

160
Q

what happens to most newborns with osteogenesis imperfecta?

A

they die

161
Q

What is rickets and osteomalacia?

A

happens when the bones do not have enough hydroxyapatite which causes the bones to bend and not be straight

162
Q

What is the difference between rickets and osteomalacia?

A

rickets is in children and ostemalcia is in adults

163
Q

What causes rickets and osteomalacia?

A

can be due to lack of vitamin D which is required to synthesis calcium

can be due to diet lacking calcium

164
Q

how is osteomalacia fixed?

A

with healthy diet, sunlight, and breaking of bones to readjust

165
Q

what are osteogenic cells?

A

the stem cells of bone that can turn into osteoblast or osteoclast

166
Q

What do osteoblast do?

A

they rebuild bone

167
Q

what recruits osteoblast to build bone?

A

osteocytes

168
Q

what do osteoblast turn into?

A

osteocytes after building bone

169
Q

what does osteoblast use to build bone?

A

when activated by the osteocytes osteoblast attract calcium and phosphorus to make hydroxyapatite crystals forming hard bone

170
Q

what is the purpose of osteocytes?

A

they monitor bone condition by recognizing strain

171
Q

what happens when osteocytes detect an increase in strain on the bone?

A

they recruit osteoblast to build thicker bone

172
Q

what happens when osteocytes detect a decrease in bone strain?

A

they recruit less osteoblast which then builds less dense bone

173
Q

can osteoblast build bone anywhere?

A

no they need existing bone to build off of

174
Q

what do osteoclast do?

A

they breakdown bone and free up calcium for absorption

175
Q

what suppresses osteoclast activity?

A

estrogen

176
Q

when would your body need to use osteoclast?

A

when your blood calcium gets too low

177
Q

what is bone remodling?

A

the constant process of bone deposition and bone resorption

178
Q

how often are bones replaced in the body?

A

every 10 years

179
Q

can bone remodeling be not in synch?

A

no bone remodeling must be in perfect synch

180
Q

what did wolff’s law state?

A

stated that the building of bone is determined by the stress that is placed on it

the bone adapts to the stress that it is under

if you dont use it you loose it

181
Q

what causes osteoperosis?

A

there is too much osteoclast activity which means bones are being broke down too fast

makes bones brittle

182
Q

is osteperosis more common in women or men?

A

women

183
Q

at what point do women develop osteoporosis?

A

during menopause when their estrogen levels drop

184
Q

what is the role of estrogen in osteoporosis?

A

estrogen slows down the process of the osteoclast and when you go into menopause your estrogen levels drop which then increases osteoclast activity

185
Q

what causes pagets disease?

A

when osteoblast build bone where they are not needed

makes bones misshapen and weak

186
Q

`what is inside the medullary cavity?

A

bone marrow, arteries, nerves

187
Q

what is the order of the make up of bone?

A

bones are made of osteons…osteons are made of lamella and collagen…lamella are made of many structrues

188
Q

what are the structure that make up lamella?

A

osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi, and the central canal

189
Q

what are the osteocytes?

A

the cell dot found in the lacunae that senses stress on the bone

190
Q

what are the lucunae?

A

the circles that house the osteocytes

191
Q

what are the canaliculi?

A

they connect the lacunae to each other

they allow the cells to communicate and transport nutrients in and out of lacunae

192
Q

what is inside the central canal?

A

veins, arteries, and nerves

193
Q

what is intramembranous ossification

A

fusion of infant bones

194
Q

what is endochondral ossification?

A

when the bones grow wider

195
Q

what is another word for endochondral ossification?

A

appositional growth

196
Q

what is interstitial ossification?

A

bones growing longer

197
Q

how does interstitial bone growth happen?

A

the growth plate divides and pushes cartilage up and down then bone builds on top of that cartilage

198
Q

what is the epiphyseal plate?

A

a plate in the epiphysis that divides cartilage and pushes the cells above and below its

199
Q

what is another word for the epiphyseal plate?

A

growth plate

200
Q

what turns the cartilage into bone?

A

the osteoblast

201
Q

what causes interstitial growth to stop?

A

the growth plate closing

202
Q

what is gigantism?

A

bones grow extremely fast and long

203
Q

what causes gigantism?

A

too much growth horomone early in life before the growth plate closes

204
Q

what kind of bone ossification does gigantism deal with?

A

interstitial bone growth

205
Q

what is dwarfism?

A

bones do not grow long enough

206
Q

what causes dwarfism?

A

low growth horomone

207
Q

what kind of ossification does dwarfism deal with?

A

interstitial ossification

208
Q

what is acromegaly?

A

when bones grow wider and wider over time

209
Q

what causes acromegaly?

A

having growth horomone present after the epiphyseal plate closes

210
Q

what kind of bone ossification does acromegaly deal with?

A

endochondral bone ossification

211
Q

what are the steps to healing bone?

A

1) The break occurs
2) A hematoma is formed
3) Internal/External cartilage callus is formed
4) New blood vessels form
5) The internal/external cartilage is turned into a bony callus of spongy bone
6) The outer spongy bone turns into compact bone

212
Q

what is a hemotoma?

A

a rush of blood that creates sac

213
Q

what are some ways that medicine is trying to speed up bone healing?

A

bone putty and 3D printed structures

214
Q

what does calcium do for bones?

A

enables bone to repair and replace itself

215
Q

what does calcium do for nuerotransmitters?

A

calcium enables neurotransmitters to be released so that nerves can pass messages

216
Q

what does calcium do for muscles?

A

calcium is used to contract muscles

217
Q

what is the homeostasis level of calcium in the blood?

A

9.1-10.4 mg/dL

218
Q

how can calcium levels increase in the blood?

A

when osteoclast breakdown bone and when we consume high amounts of calcium

219
Q

how can calcium levels decrease?

A

excreted in feces/urine and when osteoblast build bone

220
Q

what does hypocalcemia mean?

A

this term is used when blood calcium drops below 9.1 mg/dL

221
Q

what does hypercalcemia mean?

A

this is when blood calcium is above 10.4 mg/dL

222
Q

what is calcitonin?

A

a horomone that is excreted when when a person is hypercalcemic

223
Q

what excretes calcitonin?

A

thyroid

224
Q

what is parathyroid horomone?

A

a hormone that is used when the body is hypocalcemic

225
Q

what does calcitonin do to the blood?

A

reduces calcium in the blood

226
Q

what does parathyroid do?

A

increases calcium in the blood

227
Q

what excretes parathyroid horomone?

A

the parathyroid

228
Q

what is calcitrol?

A

a hormone that is used when the body is hypocalcemic

229
Q

what excretes calcitriol?

A

kidney

230
Q

what is another word for calcitrol?

A

vitamin D

231
Q

how do hormones in the body influence calcium levels?

A

modify osteoblast and osteoclast activity

influence how much calcium is absorbed in the in the small intestines and kidneys

influence how much calcium is excreted

232
Q

what does testosterone do to the bone remodeling?

A

increases osteoblast activity

233
Q

what does estrogen do for bone remodeling?

A

decreases osteoclast activity

234
Q

what does bone do in restoring calcium homeostasis?

A

when the body is hypercalcemic the bone increases osteoblast activity and decreases osteoclast activity…which makes the blood calcium level drop

when the body is hypocalcemic the bone decreases osteoblast activity and increases osteoclast activity…which makes the blood calcium level rise

235
Q

what does the small intestine do in restoring calcium homestasis?

A

when the body is hypercalcemic the small intestine decreases calcium absorption

when the body is hypocalcemic the small intestine increases calcium absorption

236
Q

what do kidneys do in restoring calcium homeostasis?

A

when the body is hypercalcemic the kidney decreases reabsorption of calcium from the blood

when the body is hypocalcemic the kidney increases reabsorption of calcium from the blood

237
Q

what does spongy bone have that compact bone does not?

A

trabecula

Anatomy and Physiology 1 (5 decks)

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