Exam #2 Flashcards
1
Q
what are the 4 kinds of tissue?
A
epithelial, muscular, connective, and nervous system tissue
2
Q
where is epithelial tissue found?
A
skin, lining of organs, and in glands
3
Q
what are the two kinds of glands found in epithelial tissue?
A
exocrine glands and endocrine glands
4
Q
what are exocrine glands?
A
these are glands that release something in a localized area
5
Q
what are endocrine glands?
A
glands that move chemicals throughout the body and to one area like exocrine glands
6
Q
what are some examples of exocrine glands?
A
sweat glands, salivary glands, breast milk
7
Q
what are some examples of endocrine glands
A
testes, ovaries, pituitary glands most examples involve hormones
8
Q
what are some examples of epithelial tissue?
A
skin….lining of organs….glands
9
Q
what are some functions of epithelial tissue?
A
protection for scrapes and outside world
first form of immune defense (skin)
transport of chemicals
secretion
sensation….touch…pressure…pain
10
Q
what are some examples of connective tissue?
A
bone…ligament…tendon…cartlidge…fat..blood
11
Q
what is the difference between ligaments and tendons?
A
ligaments connect bone to bone and tendons connect muscle to bone
12
Q
what is another word for fats?
A
adipose tissue
13
Q
what are the functions of connective tissues?
A
separate organs…..provide structural support….the blood acts as a second line of defense for immune system….transport…energy storage…maintain homeostasis
14
Q
what are some examples of muscular tissue?
A
skeletal….cardiac…smooth
15
Q
what are the functions of muscular tissue?
A
movement…stability….contraction…controlling openings like throat and rectum…heat productions…transmitting electrical control….glycemic control
16
Q
how does the muscular tissue help regulate glycemic control?
A
it converts excess sugar into energy which goes to into your muscle which makes you them contract
17
Q
what are cardiac muscle tissue?
A
they control your heart beat…you can not directly control these like you can skeletal tissue
18
Q
what are smooth muscle tissues?
A
are found in organs and contract automatically like cardiac muscles
19
Q
what are some examples of nervous system tissues?
A
nerve endings called neurons….glial/neuroglial
20
Q
what are the functions of the nervous system?
A
detect…transmit…respond…control body….perceiving
21
Q
what do nerve endings/ neurons do?
A
use electrical impulses and chemical signals to transmit information between different areas of the brain, and between the brain and the rest of the nervous system.
22
Q
what do glial/neuroglial do?
A
provide support, compose the myelin sheath, bring nutrients to neurons, and maintain homeostasis
23
Q
what is a cell?
A
basic building block of life
24
Q
what are the processes of a cell?
A
Cell metabolism….transport….communication…reproduction
25
what does the process of cell metabolism mean?
the cell must acquire energy and use it
26
what does the process of transport mean in the cell?
the cell must be able to move nutrients around the cell and move waste out
27
what does the process of communication mean in the cell?
the cell must have the ability to communicate with other cells around it to work together and maintain survival
28
what does the process of cell reproduction mean?
the cell must have the ability to reproduce and replace old or dead cells
29
What does the nucleus do in the cell?
protects the DNA and regulates growth and metabolism in the cell
30
what is the plasma membrane?
functions as a barrier to separate Intracellular fluid(ICF) and Extracellular fluid (ECF)
31
what is the purpose of the plasma membrane?
maintains a stable environment for the inside of the cell no matter what happens outside of it
lets certain molecules in
32
is the plasma membrane rigid or flexible?
flexible
33
what makes up the plasma membrane?
phospholipids
34
What is another word for ICF or Intercellular Fluid?
cytoplasm
35
what does the mitochondria do?
the primary function of the mitochondria is to convert ADP to ATP
36
what is transcription?
turning DNA to RNA
37
where does transcription occur?
inside the nucleus
38
what is translation?
turning RNA into a useable protein which is done by the ribosome
39
where does translation occur?
outside of the nucleus by ribosomes
40
what are ribosomes?
little guys outside of the cell that convert RNA to a
| long protein chain
41
what does the rough Endoplasmic reticulum do?
he takes the long protein chain made by the ribosome and folds/shapes it to a certain structure
42
what does the Golgi apparatus do?
it takes the folded and shaped protein from the endoplasmic reticulum and packages it up and moves it around the cell
43
what is uncontrolled cell division?
cancer
44
how is a cancer cell formed?
when an error in the replication of a cell happens and goes unchecked by the cell cycles/checkpoints
45
what is apoptosis and when does it occur?
it is when the cell self destructs....self destruction occurs when a cell has been flagged as an error
46
what are the four characteristics of muscles?
extensibility....elasticity...excitableness..and contractibility
47
what is extensibility of muscle mean?
it can stretch and elongate without tearing
48
what is elasticity of muscle mean?
it can spring back to its original shape
49
what is excitability of muscle mean?
electric charges can stimulate contraction..found in heart
50
what is contractibility of muscle mean?
can move both up and down
51
what are the steps to building useable protein in the cell?
1) DNA to RNA....Transcription
2) RNA to Protein which is done by ribosomes....Translation
3) The ribosomes create a long protein chain
4) Protein chain is folded by the rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
5) The Golgi then packages and ships the protein around the cell
52
what is the integumentary system?
the skin
53
what is linking adjacent cells?
found in tissues where cells are linked together
54
what are the three kinds of adjacent cell linking?
tight junction, desmosome junctions, and gap junctions
55
what are tight junctions?
they are interlocked cells that are air tight and water tight.....construction is like a zipper
56
where are tight junctions found?
the skin
57
what are desmosome junctions?
anchoring cells together like buttons where water can flow through
58
where are desmosome junctions found?
in the intestines
59
what are gap junctions?
has small protein channels that allow energy charges to flow through...water can pass through
60
where are gap junctions found?
neurons, nerves, and muscles
61
what are the functions of the integumentary system?
```
Immune barrier
Protects from scrapes and cuts
Keep water in the body
secretions of sweat and oils
excretion of waste like alcohol
thermoregulation
sensory perception
aids in vitamin d synthesis
```
62
how is the skin an immune barrier?
it blocks bacteria and viruses from entering your body from the outside....1st line of defense
63
how does the skin help with thermoregulation?
with vasoconstriction, vasodilation, hair on the body
64
what is vasoconstriction and when is it used?
vasoconstriction is making the veins near the skin smaller which keeps heat inside the body...this is done when you are cold
65
what is vasodilation and when is it used?
vasodilation is making the veins near the skin bigger which releases heat...this is done when you are hot
66
what puts your hair up when you are cold?
arrector pili muscles just under the skin`
67
what are the two layers of skin?
epidermis and dermis
68
what are the three layers of cutaneous membrane
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
69
what is another word for the hypodermis?
subcutaneous tissue
70
what is the purpose of the epidermis?
to protect from abrasions, 1st barrier of the immune system, and prevents water loss
71
what gives your body finger prints?
the papillary layers interlockings with epidermis
72
what order are the layers of skin starting from superficially and going deep?
epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis which techniqually is not part of the skin
73
what layer of skin is avascular?
the epidermis
74
what does avascular mean?
that it gets no direct blood flow
75
what is found in the dermis layer of the skin?
sensory receptors, glands, hair follicles, blood vessels, dermal papillae, arrector pili
76
what are the two glands that are found in the dermal layer of skin?
sweat glands that secret sweat for cooling the body
Sebaceous glands that secrete sebum into hair follicles to lubricate skin and hair
77
what do the blood vessels inside the dermal layer do?
they provide nourishment for both the dermal layer and the avascular epidermal layer
78
what do dermal papillae do?
they hold the dermal and epidermal layer of skin together
79
what is responsible for creating finger prints on our hands?
the dermal papillae
80
what kind of junction is between the dermis and epidermis?
tight junction
81
what do the sensory receptors do?
help us sense and feel the outside world
82
what is the purpose of the subcutaneous/hypodermis?
contains fat cells that provide energy for the upper layers
83
is the epidermis layer alive or dead?
dead
84
is the dermis layer alive or dead?
alive
85
what are each layer of the epidermis called?
stratum
86
how often is the top layer of skin replaced?
every 25-30 days
87
what are keatinocytes?
the cells that compose the skin
88
what are the layers that are only compose of keratinocytes?
in the feet and hands stratum lucidum and stratum corneum
in the wrest of the body stratum corneum
89
what layer of the skin responsible for producing thick and where is this thick skin found?
stratum lucidum and is found on the hands and feet
90
what are melanocytes?
produce melanin that goes into keratinocytes which protects cells from UV light
91
what makes our skin darker?
melanin that is produced by melanocytes
92
what are dendritic cells?
the help build and provide immunity in the skin
93
why do keratinocytes die off?
they constantly get pushed to the surface....are avascular...get less and less nutrients as they move further and further from the dermis...they build a keratin shell that stops it from getting the necessary nutrients
94
what does keratin do to keratinocytes?
protects the cell, keeps water, and protects form UV light
95
what do merkel/tactile cells do?
have touch sensation
96
what causes freckles?
increase melanin
97
what causes moles?
increased melanocytes
98
why does our tan go away?
because the keratinocytes that have increased melanin die off
99
what does sloughing keratinocytes mean?
dying off skin
100
what are the three kinds of skin cancer?
basal cell carcinoma, squamos, melanoma
101
what is basal cell carcinoma?
skin cancer that is red, cratered centered, and is only on the basal layer
102
what is squamos cancer?
skin cancer that is red, ulcerated, and found in the basal and spinosum
103
what is melanoma cancer?
skin cancer that is brown and red, irregular borders, changing color, and is rare
104
what layer does melanoma effect?
melanocytes
105
why is melanoma so deadly?
it can quickly spread and go into your blood vessels and lymphatic system which then spreads it even further
106
what are the three levels of burns?
1st degree, 2nd degree, and 3rd degree
107
what are some characteristics of first degree burns?
redonning, sensitive to touch, and partial thickness
108
what layer of skin if effected in first degree burns?
epidermis
109
what are some characteristics of second degree burns?
partial thickening, blisters, bleeding, sensitive to touch, partial thickness
110
what layers of skin are effected in second degree burns?
epidermis and dermis
111
what is more painful of the degree burns?
second degree burns
112
why are second degree burns more painful than third degree burns?
because in second degree burns nerves are still present where as in third degree burns the nerves have been burnt away
113
what are some characteristics of third degree burns?
full thickening of skin
114
what layers do third degree burns effect?
epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
115
what are complications of burns?
rapid fluid loss, dehydration, hypothermia, infections, clotting, loosing sensations
116
what is the ABCDE of assessing moles for melanoma?
```
A.symmetry
B.order
C.olor
D.iameter
E.volving
```
117
does survival rate increase or decrease when percentage of body burned increases?
decrease
118
what is used to asses the survival for third degree burn patients?
the rule of 9s and baux score
119
what percent does a head account for?
9%....4.5% on the front and 4.5% for the back
120
what percentage does the chest account for?
9%
121
what percentage does the abs account for?
9%
122
what percentage does one leg account for?
18%....9% on the front and 9% on the back
123
what percentage does the arm and hand account for?
9%...4.5% on the front and 4.5% on the back
124
what percentage does the genital region account for?
1%
125
what percentage does the thoracic region accoun for?
9%
126
what percentage does the lumbar and gluteal region account for?
9%
127
how is the baux score calculated?
percentage of body burned + age
128
what baux score is generally considered unsurvivable?
a score above 140
129
what baux score is unsurvivable for children?
it does not matter children are treated no matter what
130
what else can effect the baux score?
smoke inhalation
131
what are the treatments for burns?
skin graphs...skin gun
132
what are the functions of the skeletal system?
supports the weight of the body
protection of organs
storage site for marrows
movement due to the attachment site
133
how does the skeletal system protect the organs?
our skull protects the brain and our rib cage protects heart and lungs
134
how does the skeletal system help with storage for the body?
the bones store calcium in the bone
| the bone also store yellow and red bone marrow
135
what is yellow bone marrow?
fat storage in the form of triglycerides
136
what is red bone marrow?
used to create red blood cells and is has more oxygen which is used for growth
137
do children have more red or yellow bone marrow?
they have more red
138
why do children have more red bone marrow than yellow bone marrow?
children have more red bone marrow because the red bone marrow has more oxygen which is vital for growth
139
where is yellow bone marrow store in adults?
in the diaphysis or middle of the bone
140
where is red bone marrow stored in adults?
in the epiphysis or the ends of bone
141
what is bone deposition?
rebuilding bone
142
what cell is responsible for bone deposition?
osteoblast
143
what is bone resorbtion?
breaking down of bone
144
what cell is responsible for bone resorption?
osteoclast
145
how does the skeletal system help with movement?
the bones have tuberosities that give muscles a place to attach to the bones
146
what is the medullary cavity used for?
storing yellow bone marrow
147
where is the medullary cavity found?
in the middle of bones called the diaphysis
148
what is inside of bone?
nerves, blood, vessels, marrow
149
what are the two kinds of bone?
spongy and compact bone?
150
what is on the outer part of bone?
compact bone followed by spongy
151
what is bone composed of?
Collagen and Hydroxyapatite
152
are collagen fibers organic or inorganic?
organic
153
is hydroxyapatite organic or inorganic?
inorganic
154
what makes collagen organic?
it is made up by the body
155
what makes hydroxyapatite inorganic?
because we must get it from our diet
156
what composes hydroxyapatite?
phosphorus and calcium
157
what is the purpose of collagen in bone?
it gives bone flexibility to prevent breaking
158
what is the purpose of hydroxyapatite?
it gives bones hardness and strength to prevent breaks
159
what causes osteogenesis imperfecta?
happens when the bones do not have enough collagen in the bone which causes the bones to be extremely stiff and brittle
there are varying degrees
160
what happens to most newborns with osteogenesis imperfecta?
they die
161
What is rickets and osteomalacia?
happens when the bones do not have enough hydroxyapatite which causes the bones to bend and not be straight
162
What is the difference between rickets and osteomalacia?
rickets is in children and ostemalcia is in adults
163
What causes rickets and osteomalacia?
can be due to lack of vitamin D which is required to synthesis calcium
can be due to diet lacking calcium
164
how is osteomalacia fixed?
with healthy diet, sunlight, and breaking of bones to readjust
165
what are osteogenic cells?
the stem cells of bone that can turn into osteoblast or osteoclast
166
What do osteoblast do?
they rebuild bone
167
what recruits osteoblast to build bone?
osteocytes
168
what do osteoblast turn into?
osteocytes after building bone
169
what does osteoblast use to build bone?
when activated by the osteocytes osteoblast attract calcium and phosphorus to make hydroxyapatite crystals forming hard bone
170
what is the purpose of osteocytes?
they monitor bone condition by recognizing strain
171
what happens when osteocytes detect an increase in strain on the bone?
they recruit osteoblast to build thicker bone
172
what happens when osteocytes detect a decrease in bone strain?
they recruit less osteoblast which then builds less dense bone
173
can osteoblast build bone anywhere?
no they need existing bone to build off of
174
what do osteoclast do?
they breakdown bone and free up calcium for absorption
175
what suppresses osteoclast activity?
estrogen
176
when would your body need to use osteoclast?
when your blood calcium gets too low
177
what is bone remodling?
the constant process of bone deposition and bone resorption
178
how often are bones replaced in the body?
every 10 years
179
can bone remodeling be not in synch?
no bone remodeling must be in perfect synch
180
what did wolff's law state?
stated that the building of bone is determined by the stress that is placed on it
the bone adapts to the stress that it is under
if you dont use it you loose it
181
what causes osteoperosis?
there is too much osteoclast activity which means bones are being broke down too fast
makes bones brittle
182
is osteperosis more common in women or men?
women
183
at what point do women develop osteoporosis?
during menopause when their estrogen levels drop
184
what is the role of estrogen in osteoporosis?
estrogen slows down the process of the osteoclast and when you go into menopause your estrogen levels drop which then increases osteoclast activity
185
what causes pagets disease?
when osteoblast build bone where they are not needed
makes bones misshapen and weak
186
`what is inside the medullary cavity?
bone marrow, arteries, nerves
187
what is the order of the make up of bone?
bones are made of osteons...osteons are made of lamella and collagen...lamella are made of many structrues
188
what are the structure that make up lamella?
osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi, and the central canal
189
what are the osteocytes?
the cell dot found in the lacunae that senses stress on the bone
190
what are the lucunae?
the circles that house the osteocytes
191
what are the canaliculi?
they connect the lacunae to each other
they allow the cells to communicate and transport nutrients in and out of lacunae
192
what is inside the central canal?
veins, arteries, and nerves
193
what is intramembranous ossification
fusion of infant bones
194
what is endochondral ossification?
when the bones grow wider
195
what is another word for endochondral ossification?
appositional growth
196
what is interstitial ossification?
bones growing longer
197
how does interstitial bone growth happen?
the growth plate divides and pushes cartilage up and down then bone builds on top of that cartilage
198
what is the epiphyseal plate?
a plate in the epiphysis that divides cartilage and pushes the cells above and below its
199
what is another word for the epiphyseal plate?
growth plate
200
what turns the cartilage into bone?
the osteoblast
201
what causes interstitial growth to stop?
the growth plate closing
202
what is gigantism?
bones grow extremely fast and long
203
what causes gigantism?
too much growth horomone early in life before the growth plate closes
204
what kind of bone ossification does gigantism deal with?
interstitial bone growth
205
what is dwarfism?
bones do not grow long enough
206
what causes dwarfism?
low growth horomone
207
what kind of ossification does dwarfism deal with?
interstitial ossification
208
what is acromegaly?
when bones grow wider and wider over time
209
what causes acromegaly?
having growth horomone present after the epiphyseal plate closes
210
what kind of bone ossification does acromegaly deal with?
endochondral bone ossification
211
what are the steps to healing bone?
1) The break occurs
2) A hematoma is formed
3) Internal/External cartilage callus is formed
4) New blood vessels form
5) The internal/external cartilage is turned into a bony callus of spongy bone
6) The outer spongy bone turns into compact bone
212
what is a hemotoma?
a rush of blood that creates sac
213
what are some ways that medicine is trying to speed up bone healing?
bone putty and 3D printed structures
214
what does calcium do for bones?
enables bone to repair and replace itself
215
what does calcium do for nuerotransmitters?
calcium enables neurotransmitters to be released so that nerves can pass messages
216
what does calcium do for muscles?
calcium is used to contract muscles
217
what is the homeostasis level of calcium in the blood?
9.1-10.4 mg/dL
218
how can calcium levels increase in the blood?
when osteoclast breakdown bone and when we consume high amounts of calcium
219
how can calcium levels decrease?
excreted in feces/urine and when osteoblast build bone
220
what does hypocalcemia mean?
this term is used when blood calcium drops below 9.1 mg/dL
221
what does hypercalcemia mean?
this is when blood calcium is above 10.4 mg/dL
222
what is calcitonin?
a horomone that is excreted when when a person is hypercalcemic
223
what excretes calcitonin?
thyroid
224
what is parathyroid horomone?
a hormone that is used when the body is hypocalcemic
225
what does calcitonin do to the blood?
reduces calcium in the blood
226
what does parathyroid do?
increases calcium in the blood
227
what excretes parathyroid horomone?
the parathyroid
228
what is calcitrol?
a hormone that is used when the body is hypocalcemic
229
what excretes calcitriol?
kidney
230
what is another word for calcitrol?
vitamin D
231
how do hormones in the body influence calcium levels?
modify osteoblast and osteoclast activity
influence how much calcium is absorbed in the in the small intestines and kidneys
influence how much calcium is excreted
232
what does testosterone do to the bone remodeling?
increases osteoblast activity
233
what does estrogen do for bone remodeling?
decreases osteoclast activity
234
what does bone do in restoring calcium homeostasis?
when the body is hypercalcemic the bone increases osteoblast activity and decreases osteoclast activity...which makes the blood calcium level drop
when the body is hypocalcemic the bone decreases osteoblast activity and increases osteoclast activity...which makes the blood calcium level rise
235
what does the small intestine do in restoring calcium homestasis?
when the body is hypercalcemic the small intestine decreases calcium absorption
when the body is hypocalcemic the small intestine increases calcium absorption
236
what do kidneys do in restoring calcium homeostasis?
when the body is hypercalcemic the kidney decreases reabsorption of calcium from the blood
when the body is hypocalcemic the kidney increases reabsorption of calcium from the blood
237
what does spongy bone have that compact bone does not?
trabecula
