Exam #2 Flashcards
what are the 4 kinds of tissue?
epithelial, muscular, connective, and nervous system tissue
where is epithelial tissue found?
skin, lining of organs, and in glands
what are the two kinds of glands found in epithelial tissue?
exocrine glands and endocrine glands
what are exocrine glands?
these are glands that release something in a localized area
what are endocrine glands?
glands that move chemicals throughout the body and to one area like exocrine glands
what are some examples of exocrine glands?
sweat glands, salivary glands, breast milk
what are some examples of endocrine glands
testes, ovaries, pituitary glands most examples involve hormones
what are some examples of epithelial tissue?
skin….lining of organs….glands
what are some functions of epithelial tissue?
protection for scrapes and outside world
first form of immune defense (skin)
transport of chemicals
secretion
sensation….touch…pressure…pain
what are some examples of connective tissue?
bone…ligament…tendon…cartlidge…fat..blood
what is the difference between ligaments and tendons?
ligaments connect bone to bone and tendons connect muscle to bone
what is another word for fats?
adipose tissue
what are the functions of connective tissues?
separate organs…..provide structural support….the blood acts as a second line of defense for immune system….transport…energy storage…maintain homeostasis
what are some examples of muscular tissue?
skeletal….cardiac…smooth
what are the functions of muscular tissue?
movement…stability….contraction…controlling openings like throat and rectum…heat productions…transmitting electrical control….glycemic control
how does the muscular tissue help regulate glycemic control?
it converts excess sugar into energy which goes to into your muscle which makes you them contract
what are cardiac muscle tissue?
they control your heart beat…you can not directly control these like you can skeletal tissue
what are smooth muscle tissues?
are found in organs and contract automatically like cardiac muscles
what are some examples of nervous system tissues?
nerve endings called neurons….glial/neuroglial
what are the functions of the nervous system?
detect…transmit…respond…control body….perceiving
what do nerve endings/ neurons do?
use electrical impulses and chemical signals to transmit information between different areas of the brain, and between the brain and the rest of the nervous system.
what do glial/neuroglial do?
provide support, compose the myelin sheath, bring nutrients to neurons, and maintain homeostasis
what is a cell?
basic building block of life
what are the processes of a cell?
Cell metabolism….transport….communication…reproduction
what does the process of cell metabolism mean?
the cell must acquire energy and use it
what does the process of transport mean in the cell?
the cell must be able to move nutrients around the cell and move waste out
what does the process of communication mean in the cell?
the cell must have the ability to communicate with other cells around it to work together and maintain survival
what does the process of cell reproduction mean?
the cell must have the ability to reproduce and replace old or dead cells
What does the nucleus do in the cell?
protects the DNA and regulates growth and metabolism in the cell
what is the plasma membrane?
functions as a barrier to separate Intracellular fluid(ICF) and Extracellular fluid (ECF)
what is the purpose of the plasma membrane?
maintains a stable environment for the inside of the cell no matter what happens outside of it
lets certain molecules in
is the plasma membrane rigid or flexible?
flexible
what makes up the plasma membrane?
phospholipids
What is another word for ICF or Intercellular Fluid?
cytoplasm
what does the mitochondria do?
the primary function of the mitochondria is to convert ADP to ATP
what is transcription?
turning DNA to RNA
where does transcription occur?
inside the nucleus
what is translation?
turning RNA into a useable protein which is done by the ribosome
where does translation occur?
outside of the nucleus by ribosomes
what are ribosomes?
little guys outside of the cell that convert RNA to a
long protein chain
what does the rough Endoplasmic reticulum do?
he takes the long protein chain made by the ribosome and folds/shapes it to a certain structure
what does the Golgi apparatus do?
it takes the folded and shaped protein from the endoplasmic reticulum and packages it up and moves it around the cell
what is uncontrolled cell division?
cancer
how is a cancer cell formed?
when an error in the replication of a cell happens and goes unchecked by the cell cycles/checkpoints
what is apoptosis and when does it occur?
it is when the cell self destructs….self destruction occurs when a cell has been flagged as an error
what are the four characteristics of muscles?
extensibility….elasticity…excitableness..and contractibility
what is extensibility of muscle mean?
it can stretch and elongate without tearing
what is elasticity of muscle mean?
it can spring back to its original shape
what is excitability of muscle mean?
electric charges can stimulate contraction..found in heart
what is contractibility of muscle mean?
can move both up and down
what are the steps to building useable protein in the cell?
1) DNA to RNA….Transcription
2) RNA to Protein which is done by ribosomes….Translation
3) The ribosomes create a long protein chain
4) Protein chain is folded by the rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
5) The Golgi then packages and ships the protein around the cell
what is the integumentary system?
the skin
what is linking adjacent cells?
found in tissues where cells are linked together
what are the three kinds of adjacent cell linking?
tight junction, desmosome junctions, and gap junctions
what are tight junctions?
they are interlocked cells that are air tight and water tight…..construction is like a zipper
where are tight junctions found?
the skin
what are desmosome junctions?
anchoring cells together like buttons where water can flow through
where are desmosome junctions found?
in the intestines
what are gap junctions?
has small protein channels that allow energy charges to flow through…water can pass through
where are gap junctions found?
neurons, nerves, and muscles
what are the functions of the integumentary system?
Immune barrier Protects from scrapes and cuts Keep water in the body secretions of sweat and oils excretion of waste like alcohol thermoregulation sensory perception aids in vitamin d synthesis
how is the skin an immune barrier?
it blocks bacteria and viruses from entering your body from the outside….1st line of defense
how does the skin help with thermoregulation?
with vasoconstriction, vasodilation, hair on the body
what is vasoconstriction and when is it used?
vasoconstriction is making the veins near the skin smaller which keeps heat inside the body…this is done when you are cold
what is vasodilation and when is it used?
vasodilation is making the veins near the skin bigger which releases heat…this is done when you are hot
what puts your hair up when you are cold?
arrector pili muscles just under the skin`
what are the two layers of skin?
epidermis and dermis
what are the three layers of cutaneous membrane
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
what is another word for the hypodermis?
subcutaneous tissue
what is the purpose of the epidermis?
to protect from abrasions, 1st barrier of the immune system, and prevents water loss
what gives your body finger prints?
the papillary layers interlockings with epidermis
what order are the layers of skin starting from superficially and going deep?
epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis which techniqually is not part of the skin
what layer of skin is avascular?
the epidermis
what does avascular mean?
that it gets no direct blood flow
what is found in the dermis layer of the skin?
sensory receptors, glands, hair follicles, blood vessels, dermal papillae, arrector pili
what are the two glands that are found in the dermal layer of skin?
sweat glands that secret sweat for cooling the body
Sebaceous glands that secrete sebum into hair follicles to lubricate skin and hair
what do the blood vessels inside the dermal layer do?
they provide nourishment for both the dermal layer and the avascular epidermal layer
what do dermal papillae do?
they hold the dermal and epidermal layer of skin together
what is responsible for creating finger prints on our hands?
the dermal papillae
what kind of junction is between the dermis and epidermis?
tight junction
what do the sensory receptors do?
help us sense and feel the outside world
what is the purpose of the subcutaneous/hypodermis?
contains fat cells that provide energy for the upper layers
is the epidermis layer alive or dead?
dead
is the dermis layer alive or dead?
alive
what are each layer of the epidermis called?
stratum
how often is the top layer of skin replaced?
every 25-30 days
what are keatinocytes?
the cells that compose the skin
what are the layers that are only compose of keratinocytes?
in the feet and hands stratum lucidum and stratum corneum
in the wrest of the body stratum corneum
what layer of the skin responsible for producing thick and where is this thick skin found?
stratum lucidum and is found on the hands and feet
what are melanocytes?
produce melanin that goes into keratinocytes which protects cells from UV light
what makes our skin darker?
melanin that is produced by melanocytes
what are dendritic cells?
the help build and provide immunity in the skin
why do keratinocytes die off?
they constantly get pushed to the surface….are avascular…get less and less nutrients as they move further and further from the dermis…they build a keratin shell that stops it from getting the necessary nutrients
what does keratin do to keratinocytes?
protects the cell, keeps water, and protects form UV light
what do merkel/tactile cells do?
have touch sensation
what causes freckles?
increase melanin
what causes moles?
increased melanocytes
why does our tan go away?
because the keratinocytes that have increased melanin die off
what does sloughing keratinocytes mean?
dying off skin
what are the three kinds of skin cancer?
basal cell carcinoma, squamos, melanoma
what is basal cell carcinoma?
skin cancer that is red, cratered centered, and is only on the basal layer
what is squamos cancer?
skin cancer that is red, ulcerated, and found in the basal and spinosum
what is melanoma cancer?
skin cancer that is brown and red, irregular borders, changing color, and is rare
what layer does melanoma effect?
melanocytes
why is melanoma so deadly?
it can quickly spread and go into your blood vessels and lymphatic system which then spreads it even further
what are the three levels of burns?
1st degree, 2nd degree, and 3rd degree
what are some characteristics of first degree burns?
redonning, sensitive to touch, and partial thickness
what layer of skin if effected in first degree burns?
epidermis
what are some characteristics of second degree burns?
partial thickening, blisters, bleeding, sensitive to touch, partial thickness
what layers of skin are effected in second degree burns?
epidermis and dermis
what is more painful of the degree burns?
second degree burns
why are second degree burns more painful than third degree burns?
because in second degree burns nerves are still present where as in third degree burns the nerves have been burnt away
what are some characteristics of third degree burns?
full thickening of skin
what layers do third degree burns effect?
epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
what are complications of burns?
rapid fluid loss, dehydration, hypothermia, infections, clotting, loosing sensations
what is the ABCDE of assessing moles for melanoma?
A.symmetry B.order C.olor D.iameter E.volving
does survival rate increase or decrease when percentage of body burned increases?
decrease
what is used to asses the survival for third degree burn patients?
the rule of 9s and baux score
what percent does a head account for?
9%….4.5% on the front and 4.5% for the back
what percentage does the chest account for?
9%
what percentage does the abs account for?
9%
what percentage does one leg account for?
18%….9% on the front and 9% on the back
what percentage does the arm and hand account for?
9%…4.5% on the front and 4.5% on the back
what percentage does the genital region account for?
1%
what percentage does the thoracic region accoun for?
9%
what percentage does the lumbar and gluteal region account for?
9%
how is the baux score calculated?
percentage of body burned + age
what baux score is generally considered unsurvivable?
a score above 140
what baux score is unsurvivable for children?
it does not matter children are treated no matter what
what else can effect the baux score?
smoke inhalation
what are the treatments for burns?
skin graphs…skin gun
what are the functions of the skeletal system?
supports the weight of the body
protection of organs
storage site for marrows
movement due to the attachment site
how does the skeletal system protect the organs?
our skull protects the brain and our rib cage protects heart and lungs
how does the skeletal system help with storage for the body?
the bones store calcium in the bone
the bone also store yellow and red bone marrow
what is yellow bone marrow?
fat storage in the form of triglycerides
what is red bone marrow?
used to create red blood cells and is has more oxygen which is used for growth
do children have more red or yellow bone marrow?
they have more red
why do children have more red bone marrow than yellow bone marrow?
children have more red bone marrow because the red bone marrow has more oxygen which is vital for growth
where is yellow bone marrow store in adults?
in the diaphysis or middle of the bone
where is red bone marrow stored in adults?
in the epiphysis or the ends of bone
what is bone deposition?
rebuilding bone
what cell is responsible for bone deposition?
osteoblast
what is bone resorbtion?
breaking down of bone
what cell is responsible for bone resorption?
osteoclast
how does the skeletal system help with movement?
the bones have tuberosities that give muscles a place to attach to the bones
what is the medullary cavity used for?
storing yellow bone marrow
where is the medullary cavity found?
in the middle of bones called the diaphysis
what is inside of bone?
nerves, blood, vessels, marrow
what are the two kinds of bone?
spongy and compact bone?
what is on the outer part of bone?
compact bone followed by spongy
what is bone composed of?
Collagen and Hydroxyapatite
are collagen fibers organic or inorganic?
organic
is hydroxyapatite organic or inorganic?
inorganic
what makes collagen organic?
it is made up by the body
what makes hydroxyapatite inorganic?
because we must get it from our diet
what composes hydroxyapatite?
phosphorus and calcium
what is the purpose of collagen in bone?
it gives bone flexibility to prevent breaking
what is the purpose of hydroxyapatite?
it gives bones hardness and strength to prevent breaks
what causes osteogenesis imperfecta?
happens when the bones do not have enough collagen in the bone which causes the bones to be extremely stiff and brittle
there are varying degrees
what happens to most newborns with osteogenesis imperfecta?
they die
What is rickets and osteomalacia?
happens when the bones do not have enough hydroxyapatite which causes the bones to bend and not be straight
What is the difference between rickets and osteomalacia?
rickets is in children and ostemalcia is in adults
What causes rickets and osteomalacia?
can be due to lack of vitamin D which is required to synthesis calcium
can be due to diet lacking calcium
how is osteomalacia fixed?
with healthy diet, sunlight, and breaking of bones to readjust
what are osteogenic cells?
the stem cells of bone that can turn into osteoblast or osteoclast
What do osteoblast do?
they rebuild bone
what recruits osteoblast to build bone?
osteocytes
what do osteoblast turn into?
osteocytes after building bone
what does osteoblast use to build bone?
when activated by the osteocytes osteoblast attract calcium and phosphorus to make hydroxyapatite crystals forming hard bone
what is the purpose of osteocytes?
they monitor bone condition by recognizing strain
what happens when osteocytes detect an increase in strain on the bone?
they recruit osteoblast to build thicker bone
what happens when osteocytes detect a decrease in bone strain?
they recruit less osteoblast which then builds less dense bone
can osteoblast build bone anywhere?
no they need existing bone to build off of
what do osteoclast do?
they breakdown bone and free up calcium for absorption
what suppresses osteoclast activity?
estrogen
when would your body need to use osteoclast?
when your blood calcium gets too low
what is bone remodling?
the constant process of bone deposition and bone resorption
how often are bones replaced in the body?
every 10 years
can bone remodeling be not in synch?
no bone remodeling must be in perfect synch
what did wolff’s law state?
stated that the building of bone is determined by the stress that is placed on it
the bone adapts to the stress that it is under
if you dont use it you loose it
what causes osteoperosis?
there is too much osteoclast activity which means bones are being broke down too fast
makes bones brittle
is osteperosis more common in women or men?
women
at what point do women develop osteoporosis?
during menopause when their estrogen levels drop
what is the role of estrogen in osteoporosis?
estrogen slows down the process of the osteoclast and when you go into menopause your estrogen levels drop which then increases osteoclast activity
what causes pagets disease?
when osteoblast build bone where they are not needed
makes bones misshapen and weak
`what is inside the medullary cavity?
bone marrow, arteries, nerves
what is the order of the make up of bone?
bones are made of osteons…osteons are made of lamella and collagen…lamella are made of many structrues
what are the structure that make up lamella?
osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi, and the central canal
what are the osteocytes?
the cell dot found in the lacunae that senses stress on the bone
what are the lucunae?
the circles that house the osteocytes
what are the canaliculi?
they connect the lacunae to each other
they allow the cells to communicate and transport nutrients in and out of lacunae
what is inside the central canal?
veins, arteries, and nerves
what is intramembranous ossification
fusion of infant bones
what is endochondral ossification?
when the bones grow wider
what is another word for endochondral ossification?
appositional growth
what is interstitial ossification?
bones growing longer
how does interstitial bone growth happen?
the growth plate divides and pushes cartilage up and down then bone builds on top of that cartilage
what is the epiphyseal plate?
a plate in the epiphysis that divides cartilage and pushes the cells above and below its
what is another word for the epiphyseal plate?
growth plate
what turns the cartilage into bone?
the osteoblast
what causes interstitial growth to stop?
the growth plate closing
what is gigantism?
bones grow extremely fast and long
what causes gigantism?
too much growth horomone early in life before the growth plate closes
what kind of bone ossification does gigantism deal with?
interstitial bone growth
what is dwarfism?
bones do not grow long enough
what causes dwarfism?
low growth horomone
what kind of ossification does dwarfism deal with?
interstitial ossification
what is acromegaly?
when bones grow wider and wider over time
what causes acromegaly?
having growth horomone present after the epiphyseal plate closes
what kind of bone ossification does acromegaly deal with?
endochondral bone ossification
what are the steps to healing bone?
1) The break occurs
2) A hematoma is formed
3) Internal/External cartilage callus is formed
4) New blood vessels form
5) The internal/external cartilage is turned into a bony callus of spongy bone
6) The outer spongy bone turns into compact bone
what is a hemotoma?
a rush of blood that creates sac
what are some ways that medicine is trying to speed up bone healing?
bone putty and 3D printed structures
what does calcium do for bones?
enables bone to repair and replace itself
what does calcium do for nuerotransmitters?
calcium enables neurotransmitters to be released so that nerves can pass messages
what does calcium do for muscles?
calcium is used to contract muscles
what is the homeostasis level of calcium in the blood?
9.1-10.4 mg/dL
how can calcium levels increase in the blood?
when osteoclast breakdown bone and when we consume high amounts of calcium
how can calcium levels decrease?
excreted in feces/urine and when osteoblast build bone
what does hypocalcemia mean?
this term is used when blood calcium drops below 9.1 mg/dL
what does hypercalcemia mean?
this is when blood calcium is above 10.4 mg/dL
what is calcitonin?
a horomone that is excreted when when a person is hypercalcemic
what excretes calcitonin?
thyroid
what is parathyroid horomone?
a hormone that is used when the body is hypocalcemic
what does calcitonin do to the blood?
reduces calcium in the blood
what does parathyroid do?
increases calcium in the blood
what excretes parathyroid horomone?
the parathyroid
what is calcitrol?
a hormone that is used when the body is hypocalcemic
what excretes calcitriol?
kidney
what is another word for calcitrol?
vitamin D
how do hormones in the body influence calcium levels?
modify osteoblast and osteoclast activity
influence how much calcium is absorbed in the in the small intestines and kidneys
influence how much calcium is excreted
what does testosterone do to the bone remodeling?
increases osteoblast activity
what does estrogen do for bone remodeling?
decreases osteoclast activity
what does bone do in restoring calcium homeostasis?
when the body is hypercalcemic the bone increases osteoblast activity and decreases osteoclast activity…which makes the blood calcium level drop
when the body is hypocalcemic the bone decreases osteoblast activity and increases osteoclast activity…which makes the blood calcium level rise
what does the small intestine do in restoring calcium homestasis?
when the body is hypercalcemic the small intestine decreases calcium absorption
when the body is hypocalcemic the small intestine increases calcium absorption
what do kidneys do in restoring calcium homeostasis?
when the body is hypercalcemic the kidney decreases reabsorption of calcium from the blood
when the body is hypocalcemic the kidney increases reabsorption of calcium from the blood
what does spongy bone have that compact bone does not?
trabecula
