Exam 2 Flashcards
Plants and their environment – what plants cue in on
which direction is up and which is down
when to germinate, when to remain dormant
when they are old enough to reproduce sexually
needs to know the right time of year for blooming, and the right time for producing fruit
needs to know when to open
if they are being attacked by animals, fungi, viruses, and so on, and then produce protective chemicals
Roots and shoots must coordinate with each other
Newly formed embryos need to inform the plant that they exist and need not only nutrients, but also the protection of a surrounding fruit or cone
Flowers and pollination
Some flowers are pollinated by insects that land on them and then crawl inside; many such flowers orient themselves to be horizontal, aligned with the flight pattern of their pollinators
Abscission zone
(where a piece of the plant falls off) needs to know when to remain dormant and when to be active so that healthy leaves and immature fruits are retained but old ones are allowed to fall off
Environmental Stimuli: gravity, touch, temperature, light, chemical
Gravity indicates the direction of “up” and “down” for plants and their roots ◦ It also causes plants and organs to have weight. The heavier something is, the more strengthening tissues it needs
Touch can illicit a response in plants Examples: venus fly trap, mimosa plant, tendrils
Temperature is an important stimulus for plants in temperate environments that undergo freezing temperatures
Light not only is an important source of energy, but also carries information about the time of year shorter days in winter, longer days in summer ◦Help indicate for the plant which direction is “up” – towards the light!
Phototropin
a pigment that perceives the direction of light and directs plants in that direction
Phytochrome
A pigment called phytochrome detects light for measuring day length
Vernalized
Biennial plants need to be exposed to cold/freezing temperature (to be vernalized) – to know that they are passing from their first year (vegetative state) to their second year (reproductive state)
Transfer of information from plants: hormones
allow molecules to carry information from one area of a plant to another. All plant hormones are involved in numerous responses, none triggers just a single, specific response
Auxins, gibberelins
Auxin helps activate dormant buds, stimulates growth, promotes development of embryos and fruits, and prevents leaves from senescing
Gibberellins are involved with stem elongation, seed germination, and several aspects of flowering
Asexual vs sexual reproduction in plants
During asexual reproduction, a single parent produces progeny that are genetically identical to itself
During sexual reproduction the offspring (progeny) are genetically diverse • Each parent produces gametes which are sperm cells or egg cells, that each contain one complete set of genes of that species. • A sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, resulting in the beginning of a new individual, that will have genes that not only differ from its parents but also from its siblings
Asexual Advantages:
Because the parent lived long enough to reproduce, it must be well-adapted to its environment therefore the offspring will be well-adapted too
Asexual reproduction only requires one parent, so plants that are growing in sparse populations and far away from other plants of its species, are still able to reproduce
Reproduction and rapid colonization is possible in isolation
Asexual Disadvantages:
No genetic diversity (if new traits or alleles are needed to survive, they are at at risk of dying and not reproducing)
Not able to adapt to changing environments, and will not be able to reproduce or have their offspring reproduce if conditions change
Sexual Advantages:
Progeny are genetically diverse
Offspring can therefore be even better adapted than the parent
Offspring could potentially colonize environments that one of the parents couldn’t
New conditions and habitat changes may not have such adverse affects than with asexual reproduction
Sexual Disadvantages:
Even though some offspring might be more adapted to their environment, others might be less adapted
Cannot colonize a new site as rapidly because not all progeny are adapted for it
Changes in habitat could still adversely affect progeny
Isolated individuals cannot reproduce
Mitosis vs meiosis
Mitosis creates duplicate copies of a cell’s genes (this is how most cells multiply as an individual grows from zygote/fertilized egg, to adult) ** All outcome cells are diploid, meaning, they have twice the necessary chromosomes
Meiosis is used to ‘shuffle’ the genes when sex cells are made and to ensure that each egg or sperm cell (called a gamete) receives one – and only one – complete set of genes ** Outcome cells are haploid, meaning, they have one set of necessary chromosomes
Haploid vs diploid
Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair
Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes
Methods for asexual and sexual reproduction in plants
Common form of reproduction is fragmentation: • A wide spreading or vining plant grows several meters in length, then establishes its own root system and can survive if detached from the parent plant
Sexual reproduction in angiosperms involves flowers, which produce the necessary cells and structures
In animal life cycles, diploid adults have sex organs that produce haploid gametes, either sperm cells or egg cells, by meiosis
Once egg cells and sperm cells are brought together, the fertilized egg (now diploid) is called a zygote
Sporophyte vs gametophyte stage (which is haploid vs diploid, asexual vs sexual)
Sporophyte stage – where the plant is diploid and produces spores (spore = a single cell that is a means of asexual reproduction)
Gametophyte stage – where the plant is haploid and produces gametes
Pollen
sperm cells