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Biology 1 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Cell

A

Smallest unit of life

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2
Q

Leeuwenhoek

A

One of the first persons to observe single celled organisms

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3
Q

Hooke

A

Coined the term cell

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4
Q

Schleiden

A

All plants are composed of cells

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5
Q

Schwann

A

All animals are composed of cells

Swan is an animal

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6
Q

Brown

A

First person to observe the nucleus of a cell

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7
Q

Virchow

A

Cells come only from pre-existing cells

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8
Q

Cell theory

A

Cells come from pre-existing cells
The cell is the basic unit of life
All organisms are composed of one or more cells

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9
Q

Plasma membrane

A

Acts as a boundary between the inside and outside of the cell
Regulates what enters/exits the cell

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10
Q

Cell wall

A

Outside the plasma membrane
Add support to cell
Only animals do not have cell walls

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11
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Semifluid contents of the cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane
Includes organelles

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12
Q

Cytosol

A

Semi fluid portion of the cytoplasm (doesn’t include organelles)

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13
Q

Eukaryotic cells

A

Have membrane bound nucleus

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14
Q

Prokaryotic cells

A

Do not have a membrane bound nucleus

Have a nucleoid

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15
Q

Small cells are

A

More efficient than big cells when it comes to taking in nutrients and getting rid of wastes

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16
Q

Prokaryotic cell

A

Cell wall and plasma membrane
Ribosomes for protein synthesis in cytoplasm
Thylakoids (only in Cyanobacteria)
Nucleoid contains DNA

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17
Q

Eukaryotic cells

A

Compartmentalization—keeps cells organized and its various functions separated
Organelles

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18
Q

Nucleus

A

Control center of cell
Contains hereditary material (chromosomes), directs activities of the cell
Nuclear envelope separates nucleus from cytoplasm

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19
Q

Lysosomes

A

Membranous vesicles containing digestive enzymes

Intracellular digestion

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20
Q

Microbodies

A

Membranous vesicles containing specific enzymes

Functions in various metabolic tasks

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21
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Microbodies found mainly in kidneys and liver

Contain enzymes that break down alcohol into hydrogen peroxide and then into water

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22
Q

Glyoxysomes

A

Microbodies found in plants and especially in plant seeds. The enzymes convert lipids into carbohydrates to enhance seed germination and growth

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23
Q

Endosymbiotic Theory

A

Mitochondria and chloroplasts were originally thought to have been free-living prokaryotic cells, which took up residence inside eukaryotes

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24
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Network of protein elements extending throughout the cytosol; function in maintaining cell shape and movement of cell parts

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25
Q

Microtubules

A

Protein structures that make up the cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, and flagella

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26
Q

Cilia and Flagella

A

9 + 2 pattern of microtubules
Function in movement of the cell
Flagella—long, few in #
Cilia—short, numerous

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27
Q

Centrioles

A

9+0 patterns of microtubules

Function in cell division

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28
Q

Tight junctions

A

Create a leak proof seal around cells

Ex: stomach lining

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29
Q

Desmosomes

A

Anchoring junctions

Act like spot welds to hold tissues together

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30
Q

Gap junctions

A

Allow for cell to cell communication as ions and other molecules pass through cytoplasmic bridges between cells

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31
Q

Plasmodesmata

A

Gap junctions in plant cells

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32
Q

Phospholipid molecules

A

Ideal for forming plasma membranes because they are both polar and nonpolar at the same time
Form a bilateral with polar heads toward the watery exterior and interior
Nonpolar tails are in the middle

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33
Q

Fluid-Mosiac model of cell membrane structure

A

Bilayer of phospholipids with consistency of olive oil

Protein molecules are either partially or entirely embedded

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34
Q

Phospholipid component

A

Forms matrix of a membrane

Hydrophobic, impermeable barrier that prevents movement of polar (most biological) molecules through the plasma membrane

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35
Q

Protein component

A

Carries out most functions of the plasma membrane

Proteins can move laterally in the cloud bilayer

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36
Q

Channel proteins

A

Have a channel or tunnel that allows ions and small molecules to pass through the membrane

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37
Q

Carrier proteins

A

Helps larger, bulkier molecules cross the membrane
Temporarily bind to the molecule and help it across the membrane
Turns it loose on the other side

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38
Q

Cell recognition proteins

A

Allows one to tell self from nonself

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39
Q

Cell receptors

A

Have branching carbohydratic chains that act as receiving receptacles for hormones and other molecules

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40
Q

Receptor proteins

A

Receive hormones that cause same response by the cell

The receptors will fit with a hormone having a specific shape

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41
Q

Enzymatic proteins

A

Enzymes that circulate through the cytoplasm, bloodstream, and extracellular fluid. These enzymes are NOT embedded in the plasma membrane

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42
Q

Adhesion proteins

A

Like the desmosomes or anchoring junctions that hold adjacent cells together

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43
Q

Selectively permeable

A

The passage of most molecules into and out of the cell is regulated

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44
Q

Diffusion

A

Movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration
No energy required
Small molecules diffuse easily

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45
Q

Osmosis

A

Movement of water from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration
No energy required

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46
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

Results when water flows across a membrane to an area where there is a greater solute concentration

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47
Q

Turgor pressure

A

Related to osmotic pressure
As plant cells gain water, the water pushes out against the cell walls. This gives internal support to cells and allows the plant to stand upright

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48
Q

Hypotonic

A

Cell gains water

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49
Q

Hypertonic

A

Cell loses water

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50
Q

Protein carriers or transport proteins

A

Help larger, bulky molecules across the cell membrane

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51
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Movement of large molecules down a concentration gradient (high to low) with the help of a carrier protein
No energy required

52
Q

Active transport

A

Molecules or ions are moved from low to high concentration with the help of a carrier protein
Requires lots of energy

53
Q

Endocytosis

A

Method of taking substances into cells that would be too large to be transported by protein carriers

54
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Cell eating

Solids taken in

55
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Cell drinking

Liquids taken in

56
Q

Exocytosis

A

Method of releasing substances from cells

57
Q

Metabolism

A

All the chemical reactions hat take place in cells during growth, repair, and reproduction

58
Q

Forms of energy

A 
Mechanical
Electrical
Light
Hear
Chemical
59
Q

Mechanical

A

Kinetic energy

60
Q

Electrical

A

Flow of electrons

61
Q

Heat

A

Dead end form of energy for cells

Measure of how fast molecules are moving

62
Q

Chemical

A

Energy derived from breaking bonds that hold chemical molecules together
Potential energy
ONLY kind of energy cells can use

63
Q

Energy

A

The ability to do work

64
Q

Ribosomes

A

Made of protein and RNA

Protein synthesis

65
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Transport system
Rough ER — specializes in protein synthesis
Smooth ER — associated with lipid synthesis

66
Q

Molecules that are moving through the ER system

A

Are enclosed in vesicles that move to the Golgi apparatus

67
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Function is to process, package, and distribute molecules about or from the cell

68
Q

Vacuoles and vesicles

A

Function is storage of substances

69
Q

1st law of thermodynamics

A

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed from one form to another

70
Q

2nd law of thermodynamics

A

Energy conversions are never 100% effective
There will always be some energy released as hear
Energy cannot be recycled

71
Q

The sun is

A

The primary source for nearly all living things

72
Q

Entropy

A

A measure of the disorder in a system
Heat has the most entropy
Energy only flows in one direction

73
Q

Exergonic reaction

A

Reactions that release energy

74
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

Reactions hat require an input of energy

Energy released can be used to fuel endergonic reactions

75
Q

Metabolic pathway

A

A series of stepwise reactions occurring one after another

76
Q

Substrates

A

Reactants

Chemicals that participate in chemical reaction

77
Q

Intermediates

A

Refers to the substances produced between the beginning and end of a metabolic pathway

78
Q

End products

A

The last substances produced in a metabolic family

79
Q

Enzymes

A

Organic catalysts (usually globular proteins) that speed up chemical reactions without themselves being changed

80
Q

Coenzymes

A

Usually inorganic molecules or ions that enhance or help the action of the enzymes

81
Q

Energy carriers

A

Electron carriers that shuttle electrons from one reaction to another in metabolic pathways
These electron carriers are derived from vitamins

82
Q

Features of enzymes

A

Enzymes don’t make a reaction happen that couldn’t happen on its own
Not permanently altered or used up in reactions
They can be used over and over again
The same enzyme works in both the forward and reverse directions of a reaction
High key selective about their substrates

83
Q

Active site

A

Place in the enzyme where the substrates fit

84
Q

Allosteric site

A

Any place on the enzyme that is NOT the active site

85
Q

Activation energy

A

The amount of energy that must be supplied to get reactants to form products

86
Q

Enzymes lower

A

The activation energy so reactions occur more efficiently or quickly

87
Q

Enzymes are

A

Proteins

88
Q

pH and temperature increase can

A

Denature enzymes

89
Q

Feedback inhibition (a form of negative feedback)

A

The product being produced binds with an enzyme (at the active site or the allosteric site) and prevents the substrate from binding
This shuts the process down for a time until the product is used up

90
Q

Negative feedback

A

A decrease in function, in response to a stimulus.

It shuts down or slows down process temporarily

91
Q

Positive feedback

A

An increase in function in response to a stimulus

Encourages process to continue or proceed more rapidly

92
Q

NAD+, FAD, NADP+

A

Energy carriers
Shuttle electrons through electron transport systems
These carriers are derived from vitamins such as niacin and riboflavin

93
Q

Electron transport system

A

Series of chemical reactions where electrons are shuttle through a series of steps
The electrons have high energy when they enter the system and low energy when they exit
This energy difference is used to produce ATP

94
Q

Function of ATP

A

Chemical work: synthesis of macromolecules
Transport work: pumping substances across plasma membranes
Mechanical work: beating of cilia and flagella, muscle contraction, movements of chromosomes during cell division, etc

95
Q

Phosphorylation

A

To add a phosphate to a substance

96
Q

Significance of the ATP/ADP cycle

A

We can use the neighborhood of 400 lbs of ATP per 24 hours, but only have 1.8 oz on hand at any point in time

97
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Glucose + oxygen

Carbon dioxide + water + ATP

98
Q

Glycolysis

A

Glucose splitting
1st step in the breakdown of glucose
Takes place in the cytoplasm (cytosol)
Does not require oxygen (anaerobic)
End products are 2 ATP (net) & 2 pyruvate molecules
4 ATP are produced total, but 2 ATP are needed to start

99
Q

The role of NAD+ in glycolysis

A

An electron or energy carrier

100
Q

The 2 molecules of pyruvate produced in glycolysis enter

A

The mitochondria first for future processing

101
Q

3 steps of cellular respiration

A

Glycolysis
Krebs cycle (if oxygen)
Fermentation (if no oxygen)
Electron transport

102
Q

Fermentation

A

Process occurs after glycolysis and only when there is a lack of oxygen in the cells
Takes place in cytoplasm (cytosol)
Does not require oxygen
Generates 2 ATP molecules

103
Q

Lactic acid fermentation

A

Occurs in the muscles of animals in response to a lack of oxygen in the tissues
The end product is lactate that causes the burning sensation in overexerted muscles. Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen that must be repaid to the muscle cells in order to convert lactate back to pyruvate

104
Q

Alcohol fermentation

A

Plants, plant products, and fungi (including yeasts)

The end product is ethanol (alcohol)

105
Q

2 ATPs are produced for either

A

Type of fermentation
2 ATPs are better than none at all when oxygen is lacking, thereby preventing the last two steps in the breakdown of glucose

106
Q

Preparatory steps (transition reactions)

A

Occur just before the Krebs cycle
Occur in mitochondria
Pyruvate is conjoined with coenzyme A to form a 2-carbon molecule of acetyl-coA that enters the Krebs cycle

107
Q

Krebs cycle

A

A series of 10 reactions that are cyclical
Occurs in mitochondria
Requires oxygen (aerobic)
Releases CO2 (waste)
Produces 2 ATP molecules
Produces 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 energy carrier molecules
The CO2 we exhales originates as carbohydrate

108
Q

Electron transport chain

A

Requires oxygen (aerobic)
Occurs in mitochondria
Produces 26-28 ATP molecules (net)
The NADH & FADH2 energy carriers produced from the Krebs cycle (and the 2 NADH from glycolysis and 2 NADH from the preparatory steps) enter the electron transport system, where they shuttle electrons through the system
Water is also produced when an oxygen atom combined with a pair of electrons and 2 H+ ions

109
Q

Role of oxygen in aerobic respiration

A

Final electron acceptor

Combined with 2 electrons and 2 hydrogen ions to produce water

110
Q

One glucose molecule yields

A

30-32 total ATP molecules from its complete aerobic breakdown
(ALL 3 processes)

111
Q

Autotroph

A

Self feeder
Organism that can make their own food
Photoautotrophs use sunlight to make their own food through the process of photosynthesis
Chemoautotrophs strip electrons from hydrogen atoms or other atoms to make their own food ex: bacteria deep in the ocean

112
Q

Heterotroph

A

Other feeder
Organism that cannot make its own food
These organisms must eat or prey upon other organisms or absorb nutrients from organic materials ex: fungus

113
Q

Photosynthesis

A

Carbon dioxide + water + sunlight(energy) = carbohydrate (glucose) + oxygen

114
Q

Plants use visible light portions of be electromagnetic spectrum for photosynthesis. The blue and red wavelengths are

A

Absorbed best

115
Q

Leaves appear green because

A

They reflect the green wavelengths of light

116
Q

Structure of a chloroplast

A

Bound by a double membrane

Contains 2 portions: liquid stroma and membranous grana (made of thylakoids)

117
Q

The light dependent reactions take place

A

In the thylakoids

Function is to capture the energy of sunlight

118
Q

The light independent reactions take place

A

In the liquid stroma

Function is to reduce or convert CO2 to carbohydrate

119
Q

Light dependent reactions

A

Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll. This energizes electrons, which are sent to acceptor molecules
Water is split. One atom of oxygen is released to the atmosphere, 2 hydrogen ions are released to the thylakoid space and the electrons from this splitting H2O replace those that were boosted in energy from the chlorophyll molecule
An acceptor molecule sends electrons to the ETC. The electrons have high energy going in and low energy coming out. The energy lost from these electrons is used to make ATP
Electrons leaving the ETC are picked up by P700. The electrons are again boosted to a high energy level where another acceptor molecule passes them to NADP+

120
Q

NADP+ + 2e- + H+ = NADPH

A

NADPH is used in the stroma to produce carbohydrate and ATP

Oxygen is a by product

121
Q

Chemiosmotic ATP synthesis

A

H+ ions are pumped to one side of a membrane. This creates a concentration gradient of H ions. There is a lot of potential energy here (like water behind a dam)
H+ ions are allowed to flow back across the membrane through a protein channel. An enzyme is activated that allows the 3rd phosphate to be put back on ADP to make ATP

122
Q

Light independent reactions

A

ATP and NADPH that were produced in the light dependent reactions are used here
CO2 combined with a 5 carbon molecule of RuBP. This is the first of a cyclical series of chemical reactions in the conversion of carbon dioxide into sugar.
It takes 6 turns of the Calvin-Benson cycle along with 6 molecules of CO2 to produce one molecule of sugar (glucose)

123
Q

Photorespiration

A

Opposite of photosynthesis
In the presence of light, oxygen is taken up and CO2 is released. This happens when the weather is hot and dry. The plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. This causes the concentration of CO2 to be low inside the plant leaves, so photosynthesis cannot proceed as usual.
This is a protective mechanism to prevent water loss. When the conditions are right, the plant’s stomata will open again and photosynthesis will proceed normally

124
Q

C3 Plants

A

Fix their carbon into a 3 carbon molecule. They do best in mild to moderate climates
Ex: peas, beans, radishes

125
Q

C4 plants

A

Fix their carbon into a 4 carbon molecule
They do best in warmer, drier climates
Ex: bamboo, corn

126
Q

CAM plants

A

Fix most of their carbon at night when temperatures are cooler and the plant is not in as much danger of losing H2O
Ex: succulents

Biology 1 (5 decks)

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