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biology 110 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

cells

A

basic structural and functional unit of life

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2
Q

4 basic features common to ALL cells (Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic)

A
  1. Plasma
  2. DNA
  3. Cytoplasm
  4. Ribosomes
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3
Q

All Eukaryotic cells:

A
  1. Nucleus
  2. membrane bound organelles (Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, ER)

Examples: Protists, fungi, animals, plants

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4
Q

All Prokaryotic cells:

A
  1. lack a nucleus
  2. have DNA in an unbound region called NUCLEOID
  3. NO membrane-bound organelles

Examples: Bacteria, Archaea

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5
Q

Nucleus

A

Contain most of the cell’s DAN and is enclosed by a nuclear envelope, separating it from the cytoplasm

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6
Q

nuclear envelope

A

double membrane, each membrane consists of a lip bilayer

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7
Q

Chromatin

A

DNA and proteins form this genetic material in the nucleus

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8
Q

ribosomes

A

particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein

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9
Q

Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in what two locations?

A
  1. Cytosol (free ribosomes)

2. on the outside of the ER or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

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10
Q

ER exists in two forms:

A
  1. rough ER

2. Smooth ER

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11
Q

Rough ER

A

ribosomes studded on its surface

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12
Q

smooth ER

A

Lack of ribosomes on its surface

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13
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

where the processing and packaging of molecules that were made in the ER takes place

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14
Q

Functions of the Golgi apparatus:

A
  1. Modifying products of the ER
  2. making certain macromolecules
  3. sorting and packaging materials into transport vesicles
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15
Q

central vacuole

A

biggest organelle found inside mature plants, taking up as much as 80% of the volume

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16
Q

functions of the central vacuole

A
  1. storage of water and organic compounds
  2. a compartment for waste disposal
  3. pigments to attract pollinators
  4. toxins to deter Herbivores
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17
Q

plasma membrane

A

selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen and nutrients into the cell and of water material out of the cell

  • doesn’t allow every kind of molecule to pass through but only a selective few
  • composed of a double layer of phospholipids
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18
Q

mitochondria

A
  • organelle where respiration takes place

- has smooth outer membrane and inner folded membrane

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19
Q

cristae

A

ridges, that present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP in the mitochondria

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20
Q

ATP

A

adenosine Triphosphate serves as an energy molecule, since it has the potential to react with water and release energy stored In its bonds

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21
Q

chloroplasts

A
  • site of photosynthesis
  • contain green chlorophyll and other molecules that function in photosynthesis
  • found in leaves and other green orgs of plants and in algae
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22
Q

three out important components of chloroplast

A
  1. thylakoids
  2. geranium
  3. stroma
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23
Q

thylakoids

A

membrane sacs in chloroplasts

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24
Q

geranium

A

stacked up thylakoids in chloroplasts

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25
Q

stroma

A

fluid inside chloroplasts

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26
Q

cytoskeleton

A

network of fibers found in the cytoplasm of a cell

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27
Q

three main types of cytoskeleton

A
  1. microtubules (thickest of the three)
  2. microfilaments (thinnest components)
  3. intermediant filaments (fibers in the middle range)
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28
Q

main functions of a cytoskeleton:

A
  1. support and maintain cells shape
  2. anchoring organelles
  3. helping chromosome movement during cell division
  4. cell motility (locomotion via structures like cilia and flagella)
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29
Q

3 types of extracellular structures

A
  1. cell walls of plants
  2. the extracellular matrix (ECM) of an animal cell
  3. intercellular junctions in. both plants and animals
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30
Q

extracellular structures

A

the structures found outside the cells serve various functions such as:

  1. protection
  2. communication between cells
  3. transport of substances in and out of cell
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31
Q

cell wall

A
  • an extracellular structure that is found in plants, algae, fungi, and most bacteria however is absent in animals
  • protects the plant cells, maintains its shape and prevents excessive uptake of water
  • `made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
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32
Q

ECM (extracellular matrix)

A
  • animals cells lack a cell wall but are covered in this
  • made up of glycoproteins
  • functions
    1. support the cells structure
    2. cell to cell adhesion
    3. movement of substance across cell
    4. regulate intercellular communication
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33
Q

4 main types of intercellular junctions

A
  1. tight junctions (formed from cells pressing together, prevents leakage of external fluid). found in the stomach lining to prevent the stomach acid from seeping into the stomach
  2. desmosomes (fasten cells together by interlocking joints. found in skin to resist tear and strain)
  3. gap junctions (communication channels in an animal cell for the movement of water and solutes between adjacent cell)
  4. plasmodesmata (communication channels in plant cells for movement of water and solutes between adjacent cells
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34
Q

DNA

A
  • a nucleic acid
  • stores and transmits hereditary information
  • what genes are made of
  • directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and through mRNA controls protein synthesis
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35
Q

protein syntesis occurs in…

A

ribosomes

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36
Q

nucleic acids are polymers called…

A

polynucleotides

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37
Q

each polynucleotide is made of monomers called…

A

nucleotides

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38
Q

each nucleotide consists of…

A
  1. Nitrogen base (A,G,T,C or U)
  2. a pentose sugar (deoxyribose- found only in DNA or ribose- found only in RNA)
  3. a phosphate group (PO4)
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39
Q

5 nitrogenous bases

A
  1. adenine
  2. Guanine
  3. Cytosine
  4. Thymine (only in DNA)
  5. Uracil (only in RNA)q
40
Q

DNA has two polynucleotides spiraling around forming a…

A

double helix

41
Q

The nitrogenous bases in DNA always pair as the following:

A

A with T
T with A
G with C
C with G

42
Q

true or false:

The information in DNA is in the form of specific sequences of nucleotides

A

true

43
Q

Gene expression

A

The process by which DNA makes mRNA (by transcription) and mRNA makes Protein (by translation)

44
Q

true or false: the sequences of bases alone a DNA or mRNA polymer is unique for each gene

A

true

45
Q

true or false:

RNA is the intermediate between DNA and the proteins for which they code

A

true

46
Q

transcription

A

makes messenger RNA from DNA

this mRNA carries the message or how to make a protein from the RNA

47
Q

translation

A

the synthesis of a protein or polypeptide from the mRNA

48
Q

RNA is catalyzed by an enzyme called…

A

RNA Polymerase

49
Q

in RNA, Uracil substitutes for _______ in DNA

A

thymine

50
Q

initiation

A

the RNA polymerase bind to. promoter region on DNA & initiate the process of transcription

51
Q

elongation

A

transcription stops when the polymerase reaches the end of transcription unit

52
Q

Codon

A

flow of information from DNA to protein is based on an intermediate mRNA TRIPLET CODE

53
Q

true or false:

a Condon is an mRNA based triplet formed after Transcription if DNA (AAG,UAA,AGU)

A

true

54
Q

how many codons code for amino acids

A

61

55
Q

name the 1 amino acid start codon, required to start the translation process

A

AUG

56
Q

during translation, these mRNA based triplet, called codons are ______ by _______

A

read, ribosomes

57
Q

each codon specifies the addition of one of ___ amino acids

A

20

58
Q

initiation

A

begins at start codon AUG

59
Q

elongation

A

during this stage each codon read by ribosome bring in an amino acid

60
Q

termination

A

this occurs when stop codon in the mRNA reaches thee ribosome

61
Q

eukaryotic cell cycle

A
  1. interphase

2. mitotic

62
Q

interphase

A

cell growth and replication phase

G1, S, G2

63
Q

mitotic phase

A

cell division phase

mitosis, cytokinesis

64
Q

cell cycle control system

A

whether a cell goes through the G1, S,m G2 and M phase of a cell cycle or not is controlled by this

also regulated by both internal and external signals

65
Q

checkpoints

A

determines whether the cell is ready to go through the next phase of the cell cycle or not

G1 (most important) -> if it receives the go ahead then it goes into the S phase and undergoes replication (synthesis) of DNA, -> IF the cell does not get the go ahead then it will exit the cycle and enter into a nondividing (quiescent) state called G0 (cell arresting itself), G2, M

66
Q

Cyclin-CDK complexes

A

act as an internal signal to the cell

their presence makes the cell go to the next phase

if these do not form the cells arrest themselves and do not go into the next phase

67
Q

external signals

A
  1. growth factors
    - stimulates the cells to grow and signal them to go to the next phase and eventually divide
    - the absence serve as the signal to seize growth and division
  2. density-dependent inhibition
    - absence of this signals the cells to continue dividing
    - when overcrowding begins the cells pick up that signal and stop dividing
  3. anchorage dependence
    - need for cells to have a medium or surface to attach to in order to grow
68
Q

loss of cell cycle control system

A
  • when a cell goes through the phases despite receiving a stop signal
  • seen in cancer cells
69
Q

transformation

A

how normal cells are converted to cancerous cells which form masses called tumors

70
Q

benign tumor

A

if abnormal cells remain at there original site the lump is called this

71
Q

malignant tumor

A

if abnormal cells leave the original site and start invading surrounding tissues, it is called this

72
Q

metastasis

A

when the malignant tumor continues to grow and spreads to the rest of the body using blood or lymph as a medium forming SECONDARY TUMORS at these new locations

73
Q

cancer related deaths

A
  1. Lung cancer
  2. colon cancer
  3. breast cancer
74
Q

cell cycle

A

the life of a cell from formation to its own division

75
Q

the continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells or _________

A

cell division

76
Q

cell division =

A

nucleus division + cytoplasm division

77
Q

nucleus division

A

mitosis or meiosis (depends on type or cell undergoing division)

78
Q

cytoplasm division

A

cytokinesis

79
Q

genome

A

all the DNA in a cell constitutes the cells _____

80
Q

DNA molecules in a cell packed with proteins make up _______

A

chromatin (during cell division comes together and condenses into structures called chromosomes)

81
Q

humans have how many chromosomes

A

46

82
Q

diploid cell (2n)

A

two sets of chromosomes (humans = 46)

83
Q

haploid (n)

A

gamete (sperm and egg) contain a single set of chromosomes (humans = 23)

84
Q

somatic cell

A

all body cells except sex cells (all diploid)

85
Q

germ cells

A

diploid cells found only in gonads (testis and ovary)

86
Q

zygote

A

diploid cells fired from fertilization of sperm and egg (one set of chromosomes from each parent)

87
Q

fertilization

A

union of gametes

88
Q

mitosis

A

-zygote produces somatic cells
- phases
1. prophase
(chromosomes first become visible, chromatin condenses into tightly packed structures called chromosomes)
2. pro metaphase
3. metaphase
(chromosomes line up in the middle)
4. anaphase
(sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite ends of the pole)
5. telophase
(cytokinesis is underway by late telophase)
(genetically identical daughter nuclei are at the opposite ends of the cell and the nuclear division is complete)

89
Q

meiosis

A

gametes are produced but this

stages

  • meiosis I
    • prophase I
    • metaphase I
    • anaphase I
    • telophase I and cytokinesis
  • meiosis II
    • prophase II
    • metaphase II
    • anaphase II
    • telophase II and cytokinesis
90
Q

crossing over

A

contributes to genetic variation

91
Q

recombinant chromosomes

A

combine genes inherited from each parent

92
Q

sister chromatids

A

pair of chromosomes (non identical)

93
Q

living organisms are distinguished by…

A

their ability to reproduce their own kind

94
Q

genes

A

units of heredity and are made up of segments of DNA

also passed on through gametes

95
Q

at the end of meiosis their are ____ daughter cells

A

4

96
Q

what is responsible for most of the genetic variation and how does it occur?

A

meiosis

  1. independent assortment of chromosomes
  2. crossing over
97
Q

independent assortment of chromosomes

A

each pair of chromosomes sorts its self independently of other pairs

biology 110 (7 decks)

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