Exam 2 Flashcards
the view that criminality is a function of people’s interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society
social process theory
the view that people learn the techniques and attitudes of crime from close relationships with criminal peers
social learning theory
the view that everyone has the potential to become a criminal, but most people are controlled by their bonds to society. Crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken.
social control theory
the view that people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such and they accept those labels as a personal identity
social reaction (labeling) theory
process of human development and enculturation. Socialization reflects key social processes and institutions: the family, school, peer group, community.
socialization
the ability of parents to be supportive of their children and effectively control them in noncoercive ways
parental efficacy
the view that people commit crime when their social learning leads them to perceive more definitions favoring crime than conventional behavior
differential association theory
results of exposure to opposing norms, attitudes, and definitions of right and wrong, moral and immoral
culture conflict
the view that law violators learn to neutralize conventional values and attitudes, enabling them to drift back and forth between criminal and conventional behavior
neutralization theory
movement in and out of delinquency, shifting between conventional and deviant values
drift
methods of rationalizing deviant behavior, such as denying responsibility or blaming the victim
neutralization techniques
a strong moral sense that renders a person incapable of hurting other or violating social norms
self-control
a strong personal investment in conventional institutions, individuals, and processes that prevents people from engaging in behavior that might jeopardize their reputation and achievements
commitment to conformity
the ties that bind people to society, including relationships with friends, family, neighbors, teachers, and employers. The elements of the social bond include commitment, attachment involvement, and belief
social bonds
a person who creates moral rules that reflect the values of those in power rather than any objective, universal standards of right and wrong
moral entrepreneur
to apply negative labeling with enduring effects on a person’s self-image and social interactions
stigmatize
a course of action or ritual in which someone’s identity is publicly redefined and destroyed and he or she is thereafter viewed as socially unacceptable.
successful degradation ceremony
the reassessment of a person’s past to fit a current generalized label.
retrospective reading
a norm violation or crime that had little or no long-term influence on the violator
primary deviance
a norm violation or crime that comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents, who apply a negative label that has long-term consequences for the violator’s self-identity and social interactions
secondary deviance
process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of mainstream society and locks them into an escalating cycle of deviance, apprehension, labeling, and criminal self-identity
deviance amplification
the use of racial and ethnic characteristics by police in their determining whether a person is likely to commit a crime or engage in deviant and/or antisocial activities
racial profiling
when parents are alienated from their children, their negative labeling reduces their children’s self-image and increases delinquency
reflected appraisal
programs of rehabilitation that remove offenders from the normal channels of the criminal justice process, thus enabling them to avoid the stigma of a criminal lable
diversion programs
permitting an offender to repay the victim or do useful work in the community rather than facing the stigma of a formal trial and a court-ordered sentence
restitution
engaging in antisocial acts early in adolescence and continuing illegal behaviors into adulthood. A pattern of persistent offending across the life course
criminal career
the view that criminality is a dynamic process, influenced by socila experiences as well as individual characteristics
developmental theory
theory that focuses on changes in criminality over the life course brought about by shifts in experience and life events
life course theory
the view that a stable unchanging feature, uncharacteristic, property, or condition, such as defective intelligence or impulsive personality makes some people crime prone
propensity theory
a stable feature, characteristic, property, or condition, such as defective intelligence or impulsive personality, that makes some people crime prone over the life course
latent trait
the view that there are multiple independent paths to a criminal career and that there are different types and classes of offenders
trajectory theory
the propensity to commit crime is stable; those who have it continue to commit crime over their life course
population heterogeneity
the propensity to commit crime is constantly changing, affected by environmental influences and changing life events
state dependence
the view that kids who begin engaging in antisocial behaviors at a very early age the ones most at risk for a criminal career
early onset
a cluster of antisocial behaviors that may include family dysfunction, substance abuse, smoking, precocious sexuality and early pregnancy, education underachievement, suicide attempts, sensation seeking and unemployment, as well as criminality.
problem behavior syndrome
a state dependence theory formulated by Sampson and Laub that assumes that the causual association between early delinquent offending and later adult deviant behavior involves the quality of relationships encountered at different times in human development
age-graded theory
according to Laub and Sampson, the life events that alter the development of a criminal career
turning points
positive, life-sustaining relationships with individuals and institutions
social capital
the tendency of prior social problems to produce future ones that accumulate and undermine success
cumulative disadvantage
an innate natural inclination or tendency to behave in a particular way or pattern
propensity
Gottfredson and Hirschi’s developmental theory that links crime to impulsivity and a lack of self-control
general theory of crime (GTC)
refers to a person’s ability to exercise restraint and control over his or her feelings, emotions, reactions, and behaviors
self-control
lacking in thought or deliberation in decision-making. an impulsive person lacks close attention to details, has organizational problems, and is distracted and forgetful
impulsive
pathway to deviance that begins at an early age with stubborn behavior and leads to defiance and then to authority avoidance
authority conflict pathway
pathway to a criminal career that begins with minor underhanded behavior, leads to property damage, and eventually escalates to more serious forms of theft and fraud
covert pathway
pathway to a criminal career that begins with minor aggression, leads to physical fighting, and eventually escalates to violent crime
overt pathway
kids who get into minor scrapes as youth but whose misbehavior ends when they enter adulthood
adolescent-limited offenders
delinquents who begin their offending career at a very early age and continue to offend well into adulthood
life course persisters
adolescents who do not engage in any deviant behavior, a path that places them outside the norm for their age group.
abstainers
acts that vent rage, anger, or frustration
expressive violence
acts designed to improve financial or social position of the criminal
instrumental violence
the phenomenon in which abused children grow up to be abusers themselves
cycle violence
the life instinct, which drives people toward self-fulfillment and enjoyment
eros
the death instinct, which impels toward self-destruction
thanatos
in such a relationship, violence is the direct consequence of ingesting mood-altering substances
psychopharmacological relationship
violence committed by drug users to support their habit
economic compulsive behavior
a link between drugs and violence that occurs when drug dealers turn violent in their competition with rival gangs
systemic link
a segment of society in which violence has become legitimized by the custom and norms of that group
subculture of violence
the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will
rape
a rape that involves people who are in some form of courting relationship
date rape
the formerly accepted tradition that a legally married husband could not be charged with raping his wife
marital exemption
sexual relations between an underage minor female and an adult male
statutory rape
the belief that males must separate their sexual feelings from their need for love, respect, and affection
virility mystique
a pattern of traits and behaviors indicating infatuation and fixation with one’s self to the exclusion of all others, along with the egotistic and ruthless pursuit of one’s own gratification, dominance, and ambition
narcissistic personality disorder
rape involving multiple offenders, weapons, and victim injuries
aggravated rape
the victim of rape must prove that she in no way encouraged, enticed, or misled the accused rapist
consent
laws that protect women from being questioned about their sexual history unless such questioning directly bears on the case
shield laws
the unlawful killing of a human being with malice aforethought
murder
killing a person after premeditation and deliberation
first-degree murder
considering the criminal act beforehand, which suggests that it was motivated by more than a simple desire to engage in an act of violence
premeditation
planning a criminal act after careful thought, rather than carrying it out on impulse
deliberation
a killing that accompanies a felony, such as robbery or rape
felony murder
a person’s wanton disregard for the victim’s life and his or her desire to inflict serious bodily harm on the victim, which results in the victim’s death
second-degree murder
homicide without malice
manslaughter
a killing committed in the heat of passion or during a sudden quarrel that provoked violence
voluntary or nonegligent manslaughter
a killing that occurs when a person’s acts are negligent and without regard for the harm they may cause others
involuntary or negligent manslaughter
murder of a very young child
infanticide
murder of an older child
filicide
murder of a senior citizen
eldercide
intentional or negligent killing of a human fetus
feticide
a person who kills three or more persons in three or more separate events
serial killer
the killing of four or more victims by one or a few assailants within a single event
mass murder
a killer of multiple victims whose murders occur over a relatively short span of time and often follow no discernible pattern
spree killer
offensive touching, such as slapping, hitting, or punching a victim
battery
either attempted battery or intentionally frightening the victim by word or deed (actual touching is not involved)
assault
violent assault by a motorist who loses control of his or her emotions while driving
road rage
any physical or emotional trauma to a child for which no reasonable explanation, such as an accident or ordinary disciplinary practices, can be found
child abuse
not providing a child with the care and shelter to which he or she is entitled
neglect
the exploitation of children through rape, incest, and molestation by parents or other adults
child sexual abuse
psychological and emotional abuse that involves the spreading of smears, rumors, and private information in order to harm his or her partner
relational aggression
taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear
robbery
robbery in which the victim or victims are people the robber knows
acquaintance robbery
violent acts directed toward a particular person or members of a group merely because the targets share a discernible racial, ethnic, religious, or gender characteristic
hate crime
violence such as assault, rape, or murder committed at the workplace
workplace violence
a course of conduct that is directed at a specific person and involves repeated physical or visual proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written, or implied threats sufficient to cause fear in a reasonable person.
stalking
