Exam 1 Flashcards
Large database, compiled by the FBI, of crimes reported and arrests made each year throughout the United States
Uniform Crime Report (UCR)
The 8 most serious offenses included in the UCR: murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, arson, larceny, and motor vehicle theft
Part I crimes
the willful killing of one human being by another
murder/nonnegligent manslaughter
Under common law, the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will
New definition: the penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ without the consent of the victim
forcible rape
the taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear
robbery
an unlawful attack by one person upon another, accompanied by the use of a weapon, for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury
aggravated assault
the unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft
burglary
the unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away of property from the possession or constructive possession of another
larceny
the theft of a motor vehicle
motor vehicle theft
the willful or malicious burning of a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle, aircraft, personal property of another, or the like
arson
all other crimes, aside from the eight Part I crimes, included in the UCR arrest data. Part II crimes include drug offenses, sex crimes, and vandalism, among others
Part II crimes
Program that requires police agencies to provide a brief account of each incident and arrest within 22 crime patterns, including incident, victim, and offender information
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
selecting a limited number of people for study as representative of a larger group
sampling
all people who share a particular characteristic, such as all high school students or police officers
population
the ongoing victimization study conducted jointly by the Justice Department and the U.S. Census Bureau that surveys victims about their experiences with law violation
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
a research approach that requires subjects to reveal their own participation in delinquent or criminal acts
self-report survey
the view that women who commit crimes have biological and psychological traits similar to those of men
masculinity hypothesis
a view of crime that suggests that the social and economic role of women in society controls their crime rates
liberal feminist theory
as the size of the black population increases, the perceived threat to the white population increases, resulting in a greater amount of social control imposed on blacks
racial threat theory
Police-initiated action directed at a suspect or group of suspects based solely on race
racial profiling
offenses designed to improve the financial or social position of the criminal
instrumental crimes
offenses committed not for profit or gain but to vent rage, anger, or frustration
expressive crimes
phrase used to express the fact that people commit less crime as they mature
aging out
a chemical substance, such as dopamine, that transmits nerve impulses from one neuron to another
neurotransmitter
the small group of persistent offenders who account for a majority of all criminal offenses
chronic offenders/career criminals
the view that repeat offenders begin their criminal careers at a very young age
early onset
laws that require offenders to serve life in prison after they are convicted of a third felony offense
three-strikes policies
the scientific study of the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior
criminology
actions that depart from the social norm
deviant behavior
system made up of the agencies of social control, such as police departments, courts, and correctional institutions that handle criminal offenders
criminal justice
the various subareas included within the scholarly discipline of criminology, which, taken as a whole, define the field of study
criminological enterprise
a measure that actually measures what it purports to measure
valid measure
a measure that produces consistent results from one measurement to another
reliable measure
refers to those killings in which the victim is a direct, positive precipitator of the incident
victim precipitated homicide
illegal acts that capitalize on a person’s status in the marketplace. ex. theft, embezzlement, fraud, market manipulation, restraint of trade, and false advertising
white-collar crime
subarea of criminology that focuses on the correction and control of criminal offenders
penology
treatment of criminal offenders that is aimed at preventing future criminal behavior
rehabilitation
a statutory requirement that a certain penalty shall be carried out in all cases of conviction for a specified offense or series of offenses
mandatory sentences
the execution of criminal offenders; the death penalty
capital punishment
the study of the victim’s role in criminal events
victimology
theoretical perspective suggesting that people choose to commit crime and that crime can be controlled if potential criminals fear punishment
classical criminology
the branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic forces that can be empirically measured
positivism
the use of verifiable principles
scientific method
approach to criminology, based on the work of Émile Durkheim, that focuses on the relationship between social factors and crime
sociological criminology
a lack of norms or clear social standards
anomie
Group of urban sociologists who studied the relationship between environmental conditions and crime
Chicago School
process of human development and enculturation. socialization is influenced by key social processes and institutions
socialization
the view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those who maintain social power will use it to further their own ends
conflict theory
the view that crime is a product of the capitalist system
critical criminology
the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the would-be offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act
rational choice theory
the view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits
trait theory
the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime
social structure theory
the view that criminality is a function of people’s interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society
social process theory
examine how those who hold political and economic power shape the law to uphold their self-intersts
critical criminologists
an act deemed socially harmful or dangerous that is specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under criminal law
crime
having criminal penalties reduced rather than eliminated
decriminalized
the belief that the majority of citizens in a society share common values and agree on what behaviors should be defined
consensus view
the written code that defines crimes and their punishments
criminal law
the belief that criminal behavior is defined by those in power in such a way as to protect and advance their own self-interest
conflict view
the belief that those with social power are able to impose their values on society as a whole and these values then define criminal behavior
interactionist view
The first written criminal code, developed in Babylonia about 1750 BCE
Code of Hammurabi
The laws of the ancient Israelites, found in the Old Testament of the Judeo-Christian Bible
Mosaic Code
a rule derived from previous judicial decision and applied to future cases; the basis of common law
precedent
early English law, developed bu judges which became the standardized law of the land in England and eventually formed the basis of the criminal law in the United States
common law
crimes defined by legislative bodies in response to changing social conditions, public opinion, and custom
statutory crimes
a serious offense that carries a penalty of imprisonment, usually for one year or more, and may entail loss of political rights
felony
a minor crime usually punished by a short jail term and/or a fine
misdemeanor
the agencies of government that are responsible for apprehending, adjudicating, sanctioning, and treating criminal offenders
criminal justice system
the taking into police custody of an individual suspected of a crime
arrest
a set of facts, information, circumstances, or conditions that would lead a resonable person to believe that an offense was committed and that the accused committed that offense - the level of proof needed to make a legal arrest
probable cause
fingerprinting, photographing, and recording personal information of a suspect in police custody
booking
the questioning of a suspect in police custody
interrogation
a declaration that expresses the prosecutor’s decision to drop a case from further prosecution
nolle prosequi
a written accusation returned by a grand jury charging an individual with a specified crime, based on the prosecutor’s demonstration of probable cause
indictment
a group of citizens chosen to hear testimony in secret and to issue formal criminal accusations
grand jury
a filing before an impartial lower-court judge who decides whether the case should go forward (this filing is an alternative to the use of a grand jury
information
alternative to a grand jury, in which an impartial lower-court judge decides whether there is probable cause sufficient for a trial
preliminary hearing
a money bond intended to ensure that the accused will return for trial
bail
the step in the criminal justice process in which the accused is brought before the trial judge, formal charges are read, defendants are informed of their rights, a plea is entered, bail is considered, and a trial date is set
arraignment
pledge by the accused to return for trial which may be accepted in lieu of bail
recognizance
agreement between prosecution and defense in which the accused pleads guilty in return for a reduction of charges, a more lenient sentence, or some other consideration
plea bargain
a jury that is unable to agree on a decison thus leaving the case unresloved and open for a possible retrial
hung jury
taking a criminal case to a higher court on the grounds that the defendant was found guilty because of legal error or violation of his or her constitutional rights
appeal
the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act
rational choice theory
a theory of crime suggesting that criminal behavior is a matter of personal choice, made after the individual considers its costs and benefits, and that the criminal behavior reflects the needs of the offender
classical criminology
the view that an offender reacts selectively to the characteristics of a particular criminal act
offense-specific crime
the view that offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit the criminal act
offender-specific crime
the excitement or exhilaration of successfully executing illegal activities in dangerous situations
edgework
the situational inducements or immediate benefits that draw offenders into law violations
seductions of crime
a method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in specific settings
situational crime prevention
the principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunity that individyals have to commit crime
defensible space
people who serve as guardians of property or people
crime discouragers
an effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another
diffusion
an effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations
discouragement
an effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move or redirect offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets
displacement
an effect that occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-term positive effect but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions
extinction
an effect that occurs wen criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice
replacement
a crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties convincing the potential law violator that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits
general deterrence
the view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts
specific deterrence
confinement in jail or prison
incarceration
repetition of criminal behavior
recidivism
the idea that keeping offenders in confinement will eliminate the risk of their committing further offenses
incapacitation effect
the view that human behavior is motivated by inborn biological urges to survive and preserve the species
sociobiology
assumes there is a direct link between traits and crime; some people are vulnerable to crime from birth
vulnerability model
the view that some people are predisposed to environmental influences
differential susceptibility model
the study of brain activity
neurophysiology
a pattern of repetitive behavior in which the rights of others or social norms are violated
conduct disorder
the view that people seek to maintain a preferred level of arousal but vary in how they process sensory input; a need for high levels of environmental stimulation may lead to aggressive, violent behavior patterns
arousal theory
Freudian theory that the human personality is controlled by unconscious mental processes that develop early in childhood and involve the interaction of id, ego, and superego
psychodynamic/psychoanalytic theory
Bowlby’s theory that being able to form an emotional bond to another person is an important aspect of mental health throughout the life span
attachment theory
the view that all human behavior is learned through a process of social reinforcement (rewards and punishment)
behavior theory
the view that human behavior is modeled through observation of human social interactions, either directly from observing those who are close and from intimate contact, or indirectly through the media; interactions that are rewarded are copied, while those that are punished are avoided
social learning theory
the process of learning behavior (notably, aggression) by observing others; aggressive models may be parents, criminals in the neighborhood, or characters on television or in movies
behavior modeling
psychological perspective that focuses on the mental processes by which people perceive and represent the world around them and solve problems
cognitive theory
theory that focuses on how people process, store, encode, retrieve, and manipulate information to make decisions and solve problems
information-processing theory
the reasonably stable patterns of behavior, including thoughts and emotions, that distinguish one person from another
personality
combination of traits, such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, hedonism, and inability to empathize with others, that make a person prone to deviant behavior and violence; also referred to as sociopathic or psychopathic personality
antisocial personality
intelligence is largely determined genetically and that low intelligence is linked to criminal behavior
nature theory
intelligence is not inherited but is largely a product of environment; low IQ scores do not cause crime but may result from the same environmental factors
nurture theory
a condition in whcih the prevailing emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to the circumstances
mood disorder
a pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behavior, during which a child often loses her or his temper, often argues with adults, and often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults’ requests or rules
oppositional defiant disorder
a severe disorder marked by hearing nonexistent voices, seeing hallucinations, and exhibiting inappropriate responses
schizophrenia
an emotional disturbance in which moods alternate between periods of wild elation and deep depression
bipolar disorder
programs, such as substance abuse clinics and mental health associations, that seek to treat personal problems before they manifest themselves as crime
primary prevention programs
programs that provide treatment, such as psychological counseling, to youths and adults after they have violated the law
secondary prevention programs
people grouped according to economic or social class; characterized by the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige
stratified society
segment of the population whose members are at a relatively similar economic level and who share attitudes, values, norms, and an identifiable lifestyle
social class
a separate lower-class culture, characterized by apathy, cynicism, helplessness, and mistrust of social institutions such as schools, government agencies, and the police, that is passed from one generation to the next
culture of poverty
the lowest socia lstratum in any country, whose members lack the education and skills needed to function successfully in modern society
underclass
branch of social structure theory that focuses on the breakdown in inner-city neighborhoods of institutions such as the family, school, and employment
social disorganization theory
branch of social structure theory that sees crime as a function of the conflict between people’s goals and the means available to obtain them
strain theory
the anger, frustration, and resentment experienced by people who believe they cannot achieve their goals through legitimate means
strain
branch of social structure theory that sees strain and social disorganization together resulting in a unique lower-class culture that conflicts with conventional social norms
cultural deviance theory
an area undergoing a shift in population and structure, usually from middle-class residential to lower-class mixed-use
transitional neighborhood
as working-class adn middle-class families flee inner-city poverty-ridden areas, the most disadvantaged population is consoidated in urban ghettos
concentration effect
social control exerted by cohesive communities and based on mutual trust, including intervention in the supervision of childrena nd maintenance of public order
collective efficacy
the view that anomie results when socially defined goals, such as wealth and power, are universally mandated but access to legitimate means, such as education adn job opportunities is stratified by class and status
anomie theory
the view that anomie pervades US culture because the drive for material wealth dominates and undermines social and community values
institutional anomie theory
the goal of accumulating material goods and wealth through individual competition; the process of being socialized to pursue material success and to believe it is achievable
American Dream
envy, mistrust, and aggression resulting from perceptions of economic and social inequality
relative deprivation
the view that multiple sources of strain interact with an individuals emotional traits and responses to produce criminality
general strain theory
anger, frustration, and adverse emotions produced by a variety of sources of strain
negative affective states
values, such as toughness and street smarts, that have evolved specifically to fit conditions in lower-class environments
focal concerns
process whereby values, beliefs, and traditions are handed down from one generation to the next
cultural transmission
a value system adopted by lower-class youths that is directly opposed to that of the larger society
delinquent subculture
a form of culture conflict experience by lower-class youths because social conditions prevent them from achieving success as defined by the larger society
status frustration
the standards by which authority figures, such as teachers and employers, evaluate lower-class youngsters and often prejudge them negatively
middle-class measuring rods
irrational hostility evidenced by young delinquents, who adopt norms directly opposed to middle-class goals and standards that seem impossible to achieve
reaction formation
the view that lower-class youths, whose legitimate opportunities are limited, join gangs and pursue criminal careers as alternative means to achieve universal success goals
differential opportunity
