Exam 2 Flashcards
Developmental Patterns (Prenatal)-
Production: The Neural Tube
Migration: Movement Within the Neural Tube
Aggregation: Gathering of neurons
Differentiation: distinctions in functions
Connections: making synapses
Formation: creation of brain region
Growth: further dev. Of regions
Developmental Patterns (Postnatal)-
Quadrillions of connections within 2 years.
Growth of axons
Growth cone: looks for particular proteins
Growth of dendrites
Transient Exuberance– The great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant’s brain during the first two years of life.
Synaptogenesis- Formation of synapses
from 2,500 neuron connections at birth to 15,000 at six months. This decreases as we age due to neural pruning
Highest rate: first 6-8 years (6-10 highest density), plateaus, and then decreases
Motor cortex: 2 months old
Visual cortex: 3 months old
Prefrontal Cortex: 6 months old
Hippocampus: 8 months old
Myelination– Growth of myelin sheath, especially in the cortex
Increased Lateralization and Specialization of the cortex
left hemisphere
reading, writing, speaking, arithmetic reasoning, logic, and understanding
Right hemisphere
Perceiving and expressing emotion, recognizing faces, copying drawings, spatial relations, intuition, recognizing melodies.
spatial relations: being able to imagine objects in space–video games, etc.
Pruning
unused connections in brain die – brain then can develop in accordance with sociocultural context. stimulation increases strength of connection.
timing: greatest amount of pruning appears to be between 10 and 18 years
result: Simpler structure, more efficient, quicker response time
neural plasticity
brain capacity for modification and reorganization
method 1: Write itself with new synapses: if neurons destroyed- nearby neurons may make new connections to replace old ones
method 2: Select new uses for pre-wired circuits: area of brain damaged other areas may reorganize and take over functions
timing: decreases over time; especially after age 11
Abuse:
Physical injury to the brain: shaking or dropping infant- brain trauma;
shaken baby syndrome-motion that ruptures blood vessels in brain and breaks neural connections death or life long intellectual impairments are consequences
Overproduction of stress hormone cortisol
May inhibit synaptogenesis
May result in smaller hippocampus (involved in memory)
-May increase activity of locus coeruleus (involved in vigilance and arousal)
Neglect:
infants of depressed mothers.
reduced activity in the left frontal lobe- related to positive emotions
key factor: emotional tone of exchanges between mother and infant.
Experience -dependant brain functions
brain functions depend on particular variable experiences and therefore may or may not develop in particular infant
Experience-Expectant brain functions
Brain functions require certain basic common experiences (which an infant can be expected to have) in order to develop normally
EX: Every baby needs at least one steady caregiver (experience-expectant): Without that stability the brain might not develop normal emotional responses.
Motor skills:
learned abilities to move some part of the body (any movement ability)
Gross motor skills:
physical abilities involving large body movements ex: jumping and walking Dynamic system of motor skills: muscle strength brain maturation practice
Fine motor skills:
physical abilities involving small body movements
ex: moving hands and fingers (picking up a coin)
motor skills sequence
sensation-perception-cognition
Factors influencing growth`
experience, time, and motivation
sensory capacities
hearing, taste, smell, touch, temperature, pain, vision
hearing
Discriminates sounds based on loudness, duration, direction, and frequency
prefer mother’s voice to other women
sensitive to phonemes, even better than adults
taste and smell
prefer sweet over sour. , recognize mother by smell (if breast fed)
touch, temperature, and pain:
Touch enhances development and allows exploration of environment. Babies can be comforted by touch. Some experiences that are painful for adults (circumcision, setting of a broken bone) are much less so to newborns.
vision:
Least well developed sense. can see patterns, colors, and motion, can see as well as adults by 12 months. Depth perception demonstrated at 3 months old.
Perceptual capacity
interpretation of what is sensed
methods used to test it:
- The preference (attention) method: discriminate between stimuli
- The Habituation method: familiarity leads to a lack of response
Dishabituation: response to new stimuli
- The method of evoked potentials: present stimulus & record brain waves (dif stimuli produce dif brain Wave patterns )
- The high-amplitude sucking method: rate of sucking on a pacifier controls presentation of a stimuli, shows preference and discrimination
-has to do with infants responsiveness to sound and sucking
immunization:
Causes antibodies to defend against attack by a particular disease
breast is best:
provides antibodies and decreases allergies. essential nutrients for the brain and body
colostrum: a thick, high-calorie fluid secreted by the mother’s breast at birth. After 3 days, the breast produces milk
malnutrition:
person doesn’t consume sufficient food of any kind
results→ stunting growth and wasting (severely underweight)
Head-sparing: A biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. The brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition
Stunting- The failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition.
Wasting- The tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition.
Chronically malnourished infants and children suffer in three additional ways:
Their brain may not develop normally.
Malnourished children have no body reserves to protect them against common disease.
Some diseases result directly from malnutrition
Injury prevention (3 levels)
primary prevention: Overall situation is structured to make harm less likely (reduces everyone’s chance of injury)
ex. Sidewalks, speed bumps
secondary prevention Averting harm in high-risk individuals
ex. school crossing guards avert harm from kids
tertiary prevention: After an injury occurs (limiting damage)
ex. law against hit and runs
Assumptions
individual is active, curious, and inventive
the factors that influence development (below) are related to cognitive growth
Intelligence:
a basic life function that helps the organism to adapt to its environment
Factors that influence development
maturation of N.S
physical experience
social interaction
Nature of development-
cognitive development changes over life span in stages (discontinuous fashion)
sensorimotor period: 0 - 2 Way infants think by using senses and motor skills, reflexes (I see, I act)
Sensory=feeling; motor=acting
preoperations: 2-7 (Transitional Stage) (Before logical thinking→ operations = logical thinking). Basic language
the ability to picture words and images in your head and use them to problem solve
concrete operations: 7-12 (Simple here and now logic (ex. math)
thinking logically
only concrete thoughts
formal operations: 12+ (Formal/Abstract Logic)
hypothetical thought
postformal operations: 18+?
Research Methods
observations of natural behavior
clinical (interview) method:
Interview with child about some problem or task
Child’s responses to each question or problem determines what the interviewer asks next.
questions not always standardized across children
Dimensions of Cognition
content, structure (schema), & function
1) content: Current thoughts, actions. What is occupying your thoughts right now
2) structure (schema): an organized pattern of thought or action that one constructs to interpret some aspect of one’s experience (strategy or a concept)
Behavioral: action. Ex: While we drive we don’t have to think about every move we make, we just drive.
Cognitive (Mental Representation): images, words. All the words and definitions of words in our heads.
Operational: logical connections among schema. Logical sequence you follow to do something. EX: When we get on our computers we just know the logical sequence of how to get on the web and log on to Facebook. We don’t have to think about every little step
3) function: (organization, adaptation)
Organization: an inborn tendency to combine and integrate schema into coherent systems or bodies of knowledge
Adaptation: an inborn tendency to adjust to the demands of the environment
Organization & Adaptation (Assimilation & Accommodation)
assimilation (organize): Process of making new information fit existing schema (knowledge structures) Ex. Toddler sees a lion and assumes it is a kitty
accommodation (adapt): Process of developing new schema or modifying old schema in order to incorporate or adapt to new experiences Ex. Toddler sees a lion and identifies it as a lion not a kitty
Characteristics of sensorimotor substages
1) primary circular reaction: Concentration is on the baby’s own body. baby’s reaction - feels good (keep sucking)-1-4 months
2) secondary circular reaction: Trying to make interesting things last. The infant’s responses to object s and people. repeated reaction from object to person- interesting object (keep shaking) 4-12 months
3) tertiary circular reaction: Involves experimentation and internal problem solving. The most creative with action and then with ideas. novel reaction from object to person- fascinating reaction (what else can i do) 12-24 months, “little scientist”
Characteristics of preoperational period: Achievements
1) development of symbolic function: The ability to make one thing stand or represent something else
Contributes to the use of language
Enables children to pretend play
Spatial representation is possible– metal representation of objects in space. (EX: The word table is not really a table but it stands for a table and when we hear the word we are able to picture a table in our minds)
2) language development: Helps push along symbolic function
Characteristics of preoperational period: Cognitive Limitations
egocentrism:
animism:
centration:
focus on appearance:
irreversibility:
egocentrism
piaget’s term for children’s tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective. The ability to distinguish my point of view from your point of view. (EX: When a mother is sick, the child doesn’t understand why the mom doesn’t want to play because all they child understands is that he feels fine.)
animism
The belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive.(EX: If a mom breaks a barbie doll, the child will freak out and say that the mom killed the barbie)
static reasoning: Belief that the world and people are unchanging. The world that the child sees right now is the way is always has been and the way it will always be. They find it hard to believe that their parents were ever little kids because they have only ever known them as adults. The child may also believe that they will always be that age and will always look the same.
centration
a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child focuses on one idea, excluding all others. only focus on one part of a problem that they are trying to solve. (EX: They will think a tall skinny beaker has more water than a short fat beaker because they only consider height not width.)
focus on appearance:
a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent
irreversibility:
The inability to reverse one’s thinking. (EX: A child could understand that 3+4=7 but find it hard to grasp that 7-4=3)
Limitations of theory
sample too small - He only observed his three children
methods too simple
brain activity unseen
Advances in technology have revealed that children can perform some tasks earlier that Piaget’s research indicated.
Piaget’s conservation task requires words
Information processing theory-
a perspective that compares human thinking process, by analogy, to a computer analysis of data- including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output.
Affordances– concern perception
affordance- An opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment.
Object, creatures, and especially people that move are particularly interesting to infants, because they afford many possibilities for interaction and perception. Early affordances are evidence of early cognition
Memory– concerns brain organization and output
Infant memory is fragile but not completely absent. Reminder sessions help trigger memories, and young brains learn motor sequences and respond to repeated emotions (their own and those of other people) long before they can remember with words. Memory is multifaceted; explicit memories are rare in infancy.
Language Development
infants need to be taught.
social impulses foster infant language (social-pragmatic theory):
infants teach themselves
sociocultural theory:
infants need to be taught.
Based on Behaviorism perspective. Children’s babbling is usually enforced. Operant Conditioning. Typically every time the baby says “ma-ma-ma-ma”, a grinning mother appears, repeating the sounds and showering the baby with attention and praise. Parents respond to the gestures and sounds of their infants, thus reinforcing speech. Parents are expert teachers:
social impulses foster infant language (social-pragmatic theory):
Based on sociocultural perspective. Infants communicate because humans are social beings, dependant on one another for survival and joy. All infants master words and grammar to join the social world in which they find themselves. It is the emotional message of speech, not the words, that propel communication
infants teach themselves
Chomsky- Innate. Language learning is genetically programmed to begin at a certain age. Arises from the universal human impulse to imitate. Chomsky cited universal grammar as evidence that humans are born with a mental structure that prepares them to seek some elements of human language. Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
sociocultural theory:
Vygotsky- Mentors, Scaffolding (zone of proximal development)
-Sequence of language development-infancy through early childhood (chart on pg 169)
new borns: reflexive communication- cries, movements, facial expressions
2 months: range of meaningful noises- cooing, fussing, and facial expressions
3-6 months: new sounds- squeals, growls, croons
6-10 months: babbling- consonant and vowel sounds repeated in syllables
10-12 months: comprehension of simple words
12 months: first spoken words recognized in native language
13-18 months: slow growth of vocab.
18 months: naming explosion (a sudden increase in an infant’s vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns)- 3 or more words learned per day
21 months: first 2 word sentence
24 months: multiword sentences: 2 or more words long
Factors influencing language development
social interaction
maternal responsiveness
pragmatics
knowing when which words, tones, and grammatical forms to use with which person
overregularization:
when children sometimes apply the rules of grammar when they should not
ex: foots, tooths, mouses, etc.
Vygotsky’s theory (Sociocultural)
adults provide the scaffolding for advancing cognitive and language development
Conversations between adult and child is key to development
teaching must be within the “zone of proximal development” (best type of teaching, not too difficult, and not too easy)
These conversations are internalized by the child, which changes how child thinks & understands language
New thinking & language is applied to problem solving/interactions with others (family, peers)
Private Speech is used when kids encounter a difficulty (e.g., when something is confusing)
talking to themselves, verbalizing outloud
During the course of early childhood, private speech gradually leads to Internal Speech
problem-solving, thinking– “what do I have to do after class?” “where am I going?”
Primary emotions
Primary- birth→ interest, distress, disgust; 2-7 months→ anger, sadness, joy, surprise, fear
smiling and laughter- first expression of pleasure:
fear- first negative emotion:
•separation anxiety: normal at age 1, declines at 2, cultural differences
•individual difference in emotion:
•temperant: can influence emotional intensity/regulation
•contextual factors: affect infant reactions to strangers
Secondary emotions
Secondary- 2yrs and up- self conscious/evaluative emotions→ shame, envy, guilt, pride, embarrassment, jealousy
emotional self regulation: the regulation and inhibition of emotions and emotional reactions
delay of gratification: waiting for a more appropriate time and place to engage in a desirable activity to obtain a desired goal
cortisol: primary stress hormone
jealousy: secondary emotion
guilt: secondary emotion
differentiating between pride and shame:
Emotional Regulation
ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
Role of culture (pg 278
Children may be encouraged to laugh/cry/yell or opposite to hide their emotions, depending on how they’re regulated due to their beliefs.
Origins of Personality (temperament)
temperament- Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by the person’s typical responses to the environment
Attachment theory and research- mary ainsworth
-Categories
secure
anxious-resistant:
anxious avoidant:
disorganized:
secure
explores new environment
- uses parent as a secure base
- shows distress when parent leaves
- usually open to strangers overtures
- seeks physical contact with parent at return
- can be comforted by parent
anxious-resistant:
- Does not explore
- shows extreme distress when parent leaves
- resists strangers attempts to engage in play
- initially seek contact when parent returns but then resists parent
- difficult to comfort
anxious avoidant:
- rarely explores environment
- unresponsive to parent
- does not show distress when parent leaves
- unresponsive to stranger
- avoids parent upon return, or passive in contact with parent
disorganized:
- rarely explores environment
- may cling or avoid parent
- shows great distress when parent leaves
- avoids contact with stranger
- may seek out parent upon return, or may avoid parent or both
- flattened affect
secure (caregivers)
Consistent in responding to infant’s needs.
– good at reading emotional cues
– encouragement and exploration of the enviro.
– available when infants are distress
– enjoy being with and playing with their infants.
Anxious-Resistant Caregivers
inconstant in meeting with infants need
– not very good at reading emotional cues
– not competent encouraging exploration of the environment
– not always available when infants are distress
– usually enjoy being w/ infants
Anxious-Avoidant Caregivers
– inconstant in meeting with infants needs
– may be good at reading emotional cues
– not always available when infants is in distress, and often displays displeasure in infants
– sometimes view infant as interferenece
Disorganized Caregivers
inconsistent in meeting w/ infants
– not usually good at reading infants’ emotional causes.
– does not encourage exploration of the enviro.
– sometimes available, sometimes hostile (abusive)
– sometimes enjoy being w/ infants
secure: Developmental Consequences
display highest levels of cognitive, emotional, and social competence throughout preschool, elementary school and adolescence
-anxious resistant: Developmental Consequences
most disruptive, attention seeking, may be manipulative in relationships
anxious avoidant: Developmental Consequences
withdrawn and aggressive difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships
disorganized: Developmental Consequences
withdrawn, aggressive, disruptive, poorest prognosis of all insecure groups. Difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships
Development of self understanding:
At around 18 months infants understand the concept of self. This later plays a role in development when the child begins to feel emotions such as shame or pride.
solitary play:
a child plays alone, unaware of any other children playing nearby
onlooker play:
onlooker play:
parallel play:
children play with similar objects in similar ways but not together
associative play:
children interact sharing material, but their play is not reciprocal
cooperative play
children play together, creating dramas or taking turns
rough-and-tumble play:
play that mimics aggression through wrestling,chasing, or hitting, but where there is not intent in harm
sociodramatic play
pretend play in early childhood is thrilling and powerful
Baumrind’s styles of parenting:
authoritative/traditional:
permissive:
authoritarian:
dismissive
authoritative/traditional:
parents set limits but listen to the child and are flexible. Limits and guidance provided, but also parental warmth. Children are more likely to be successful, articulate and happy. Experience better success in peer relationships.
permissive:
high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control. Children likely lack self-control, impulsive (emotional regulation). Socially incompetent, experience difficulties in peer relationships.
authoritarian:
characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment, and little communication from child to parent. High standards and expectations with low nurturance. Children are likely to become conscientious, obedient, and quiet– but not as happy. Children may become rebellious in adolescence.
dismissive
Low demands and expectations with low responsiveness. Children lacks self-control, has difficulties in school and with peer relationships, socially incompetent.
