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Anatomy and Physiology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two types of epithelium?

A

Covering and lining epithelia - Skin

Glandular epithelia - secretory tissue in glands

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2
Q

What are the functions of the epithelium?

A 
Protection
Excretion
Absorption
Secretion
Filtration
Sensory reception
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3
Q

What are the five characteristics of epithelia tissue?

A 
Polarity
Specialized contacts
Supported by connective tissue
Avasscular
Can regenerate
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4
Q

What are the four types of tissue?

A

Connective - Supports and protects
Muscular - Produces movement
Epithelium - Covers and forms lining
Nervous - Controls

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5
Q

What is the basement membrane?

A

Basal and reticular lamina
Reinforces epithelial sheet
Resists stretching and tearing
Defines epithelial boundary

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6
Q

How are adjacent cells bound in epithelial tissue?

A

Desmosomes and tight junctions

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7
Q

What is the reticular lamina?

A

Connective tissue that supports the epithelium
Deep to the basal lamina
Network of collagen fibers

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8
Q

What is simple epithelia?

A

One cell layer thick

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9
Q

What is stratified epithelia?

A

Two or more layers of cells

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10
Q

What are the three different cell shapes?

A

Squamous - flattened
Cuboidal - cubes
Columnar - columns

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11
Q

What are the different types of epithelia tissue?

A 
Simple squamous
Simple cuboidal
Simple columnar
Pseudostratified columnar
Stratified squamous
Stratified cuboidal
Stratified columnar
Transitional
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12
Q

What is significant about simple squamous cells and where are they located?

A

Allows materials to pass by diffusion and filtration

Found in kidneys, aveoli, and blood vessels

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13
Q

What is the endothelium?

A

Simple squamous tissue that lines the lymphatic vessels, blood vessels and heart

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14
Q

What is the mesothelium?

A

Simple squamous epithelium of serus membranes in ventral cavity

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15
Q

What is significant about simple cuboidal cells and where are they located?

A

Functions in secretion and absorption

Found in kidney, tubules, ovary, surface, ducts of small glands

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16
Q

What is significant about simple columnar cells and where are they located?

A

Function in absorption and secretion of mucus and enzymes

Found in digestive tract, gall bladder and excretory ducts

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17
Q

What is significant about pseudostratified columnar cells and where are they found?

A

Secrets substances, particularly mucus
Propels mucus with cilia
Found in trachea and lining bronchi into lungs

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18
Q

What is significant about stratified squamous cells and where are they found?

A

Protects underlying tissues

Found in skin, mouth and esophagus

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19
Q

What is significant about stratified cuboidal cells and where are they found?

A

Found in sweat and mammary glands

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20
Q

What is significant about transitional cells and where are they found?

A

Ability to change shape with stretch

Found in bladder

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21
Q

What is significant about stratified columnar cells and where are they found

A

Found in pharynx and male urethra

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22
Q

What is a gland?

A

One or more cells that make and secrete a secretion

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23
Q

What are the two types of glands?

A

Endocrine - ductless gland, secretion right into blood or lymph
Exocrine - Secretions released onto skin or into organs

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24
Q

What are unicellular glands called?

A

Goblet cells

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25
Q

What does the pancreas secrete?

A 
Insulin (endocrine)
Pancreatic juices (exocrine)
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26
Q

What are the three types of secretion?

A

Merocrine - secretes as produced, secretes by exocytosis (Pancreas, sweat glands, salivary)
Holocrine - Accumulates products within and then ruptures (oil glands)
Apocrine - Accumulates products within, but only tip ruptures (Mammary glands)

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27
Q

What are tubular glands?

A

Straight cells

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28
Q

What are alveolar cells?

A

Bulb shaped

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29
Q

What are the four main classes of connective tissue?

A

Connective tissue proper
Cartilage
Bone
Blood

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30
Q

What are the major functions of connective tissue?

A 
Binds and supports
Protects
Transport
Insulation
Fuel reserve
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31
Q

What are the characteristics of connective tissue?

A

Have mesenchyme as a common tissue of origin
Have varying degree of vascularity
Have extra cellular matrix (liquid and fibers)

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32
Q

What are the three elements that make up connective tissue?

A

Ground substance
Fibers
Cells

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33
Q

What is the ground substance in connective tissue?

A

Interstitial fluid - fluid surrounding cell
Adhesion proteins
Proteoglycans

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34
Q

What do the fibers do in connective tissue?

A

Provide support

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35
Q

What are the three types of fibers in connective tissue?

A

Collagen - Thick fibers, strong structural support
Elastic - Thin stringy, allow stretch and recoil
Reticular - Strong but also allow stretch

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36
Q

What are the types of cells in connective tissue?

A 
Blasts
Cytes
Fat cells
White blood cells
mast cells
macrophages
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37
Q

What do mast cells do?

A

Reduce inflamation

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38
Q

What are the subclasses of connective tissue proper?

A

Loose connective tissue

Dense connective tissue

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39
Q

What are the characteristics of loose connective tissue?

A

Support and bind other tissues
Store nutrients as fat
Defend against infection

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40
Q

What are the subclasses of dense connective tissue?

A

Dense regular
Dense irregular
Elastic

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41
Q

What are the characteristics of dense regular tissue?

A

Attaches muscles to bone or muscles

Tendons and ligaments

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42
Q

What are the characteristics of dense irregular tissue?

A

Withstands tension in many directions

Joints and dermis of the skin

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43
Q

What are the characteristics of elastic tissue?

A

Allows to recoil after switching

Walls of arteries

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44
Q

What are the characteristics of cartilage?

A

Tough yet flexible
Lacks nerve fibers
Avascular

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45
Q

What are the types of cartilage?

A

Hyaline
Elastic
Fibrocartilage

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46
Q

What are the characteristics of hyaline cartilage?

A

Supports and reinforces
Serves as a resilient cushion
Covers ends of bones, ribs

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47
Q

What are the characteristics of elastic cartilage?

A

Maintains shape while allowing great flexibility

Supports external ear

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48
Q

What are the characteristics of fibrocartilage?

A

Allows to absorb compressive shock

Inter vertebral discs and knee joint

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49
Q

What are the characteristics of bone?

A

Has inorganic calcium salts
Supports and protects
Also called osseous tissue
Stores fat and synthesizes blood cells in cavities

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50
Q

What is the function of blood?

A

Transportation

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51
Q

What is the function of muscle?

A

Highly vascularized

Provides movement

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52
Q

What are the three types of muscle?

A

Skeletal - striations, multinucleated, voluntary
Cardiac - Intercalated discs, heart contractions
Smooth muscle - Involuntary, no striations, found lining hollow organs

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53
Q

What are neurons?

A

Cells that conduct and transmit electrical signals

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54
Q

What are neuroglia?

A

Supporting cells that support, insulate, and protect neurons

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55
Q

What is the soma?

A

Area where the nucleus is located in a nervous cell

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56
Q

What is the dendrite?

A

Extensions from nerve cell that pick up stimulus

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57
Q

What is the axon tunnel?

A

Tunnel on nerve cells that signals are sent down

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58
Q

What are the three types of membranes?

A

Cutaneous - skin, dry membrane
Mucous - line body cavities open to exterior, moist
Serous - found in closed body cavity, moist

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59
Q

What are the two ways tissue repair can occur?

A

Regeneration - restores original function

Fibrosis - original function lost (scars)

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60
Q

What tissues regenerate extremely well?

A 
Blood
Bone
Epithelium
Dense irregular
Areolar
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61
Q

What tissues regenerate moderately well?

A

Smooth muscle

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62
Q

What tissues have virtually no regenerative capacity?

A

Cardiac and nervous

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63
Q

What are the three types of developmental tissue?

A

Ectoderm - nervous
Mesoderm - muscle
Endoderm - innner lining of digestive system

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64
Q

What are the two layers of the integumentary system?

A

Dermis - mostly fibrous connective tissue

Epidermis - superficial

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65
Q

What is the hypodermis?

A

Anchors skin to underlying structures

Mostly adipose tissue that absorbs shock and insulation

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66
Q

What are the four layers of the epidermis?

A

Stratum basale - actively dividing, house melanocytes
Stratum spinosum - House keratinocytes
Stratum granulosum
Stratum corneum - dead cells, 20-30 layers

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67
Q

What are melanocytes?

A

Store melanin that defines skin color and protects DNA from the sun

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68
Q

What are keratinocyctes?

A

Secrete keratin

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69
Q

What are lemellar granules?

A

Release lipids which help make skin water proof

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70
Q

What are the layers of the dermis?

A

Papillary

Reticular

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71
Q

What is the papillary layer composed of?

A

Areolar connective tissue

Dermal papillae

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72
Q

What are dermal papillae?

A

Thick skin lie on dermal ridges cause epidermal ridges
Enhance gripping ability
Contribute to sense of touch
Pattern is fingerprint

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73
Q

What is the reticular layer?

A

Composed of dense irregular fibrous connective tissue

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74
Q

What are striae?

A

Stretch marks

75
Q

What are the three pigments that attribute to skin color?

A

Melanin
Caratene
Hemoglobin

76
Q

What is cyanosis?

A

Blue skin color

Low oxygenation

77
Q

What is erythema?

A

Redness

Caused by fever, hypertension, inflamation, allergy

78
Q

What is pallor?

A

Paleness

Caused by anemia, low blood pressure, fear, anger

79
Q

What is jaundice?

A

Yellow skin color

Caused by liver disorder

80
Q

What is bronzing?

A

Metalic looking skin

Caused by inadequate steroid hormones

81
Q

What are bruises?

A

Clotted blood underneath the skin

82
Q

What is hair?

A

Dead keratinized cells of hard keratin

83
Q

What are the functions of hair?

A

Physical trauma
Heat loss
Protection from sunlight
Warns off insects

84
Q

What is glaborous skin?

A

Areas without hair

85
Q

What are the two types of hair?

A

Vellus hair - pale, fine hair

Terminal hair - coarse, long hair of eyebrows

86
Q

What area of the nail is active in nail growth?

A

Nail matrix

87
Q

What are the two main types of sweat glands?

A

Eccrine

Apocrine

88
Q

What are the characteristics of eccrine sweat glands?

A

Regulated by autonomic nervous system

Cold and heat induced sweat

89
Q

What are the two types of apocrine sweat glands?

A

Ceruminous - lines external ear canal

Mammary glands - secrete milk

90
Q

What are the functions of the integumentary system?

A 
Protection
Body temperature regulation
Cutaneous sensation
Metabolic functions
Blood resevoir
Excretion
91
Q

What are the types of barriers that the integumentary system provides?

A

Chemical
Physical
Biological

92
Q

What are examples of chemical barriers?

A

Skin secretions keep bacteria from growing

Melanin is a defense against UV radiation

93
Q

What are the three major types of skin cancer?

A

Basal cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma - does matastasize
Melanoma - fast matastasize

94
Q

What are the three classifications of burns?

A

First degree - partial thickness
Second degree - Partial thickness, blisters
Third degree - Through epidermis to dermis

95
Q

What is debridement?

A

Removal of burned skin

96
Q

What is classified as critical burns?

A

> 25% of body has second degree burns
10% of body has third degree burns
Face, hands or feet bear third degree burns

97
Q

How does the inegumentary system develop in the fetal stage?

A

Ectoderm becomes the epidermis
Mesoderm becomes the dermis and hypodermis
Lanugo coat
Vernix caseasa

98
Q

What is the lanugo coat?

A

Delicate hairs in the 5th and 6th month of fetal development

99
Q

What is the vernix caseasa?

A

Sebaceous gland secretion

Protects skin of fetus

100
Q

What are the developmental aspects that occur from infancy to adulthood?

A

Skin thickens, more subcutaneous fat
Sweat and sebaceous gland activity increase
Scaling and dermitis more common

101
Q

What are the functions of bone?

A 
Support
Protection
Movement
Mineral and growth factor storage
Hematopoiesis (blood cell development)
Fat storage
Hormone production
102
Q

What is appositional growth?

A

Perichondrium cells secrete matrix against external face of existing cartilage

103
Q

What is interstitial growth?

A

Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within

104
Q

What are the four types of hyaline cartilage?

A

Articular - Covers ends of bones at moveable joints
Costal - connect ribs to sternum
Respiratory - Form skeleton of larynx and other respiratory passageways
Nasal - Supports external nose

105
Q

What is the axial skeleton?

A

Skull
Vertebrae
Ribs

106
Q

What is the appendicular skeleton?

A

Limbs

Attachment sites

107
Q

What are the different classifications of bones based on shape?

A

Long bones - Longer than they are wide
Short bones - Small cube like bones (carpals)
Flat bones - Relatively thin
Irregular bones - Vertebrae and hips

108
Q

What are compact bones?

A

Dense outer layer

Smooth and solid

109
Q

What are spongy bones?

A

Honeycomb of flat pieces deep to compact bone

Ends of long bone

110
Q

What is the shaft of a long bone called?

111
Q

What is the end of a long bone called?

112
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate?

A

Growing part of bone
Made of hyaline cartilage
Turns into epiphyseal line after hardening after puberty

113
Q

What is the periosteum?

A

Outside covering of bone

114
Q

What is the medullary cavity?

A

Inside chamber of long bone

Lined by endosteum

115
Q

What is a tuberosity?

A

Large rounded projection

116
Q

What is a crest?

A

Narrow ridge of bone

117
Q

What is a trochanter?

A

Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process

118
Q

What is a line?

A

Narrow ridge of bone, less prominent than a crest

119
Q

What is a tubercle?

A

Small rounded projection or process

120
Q

What is an epicondyle?

A

Raised area on or above a condyle

121
Q

What is a spine?

A

Sharp slender often pointed projection

122
Q

What is a process?

A

Any bony prominence

123
Q

What are the three types of bone markings?

A

Projections - allow for muscle and ligament attachment
Depressions
Openings

124
Q

What are the five types of cells in bone?

A

Osteogenic cells - Make cells
Osteoblasts - Bone building cells
Osteocytes - Active osteoblasts or osteoclasts
Bone lining cells - make up periosteum and endosteum
Osteoclasts - bone resorbing cells

125
Q

What is ossification?

A

Process of bone tissue formation

126
Q

What are the two types of ossification?

A

Endochondial - bone forms replacing hyaline cartilage

Intramembranous - bone develops from fibrous membrane

127
Q

What are the two types of postnatal bone growth?

A

Interstitial - lengthening of bone

Appositional - Widening of bone

128
Q

What are the five zones of interstitial growth?

A

Resting zone
Proliferation zone - actively undergoing mitosis
Hypertrophic zone - Old cartilage cells enlarge
Calcification zone - matrix calcifies
Ossification zone - new bone formed

129
Q

How do we regulate bone growth?

A

Growth hormone - most important
Thyroid hormone - Ensures proper proportions
Testosterone and estrogen - Promotes growth spurts

130
Q

What is required for bone homeostasis?

A

Remodeling and bone repair

131
Q

What are two ways that the body controls bone remodeling?

A

Negative feedback - controls calcium blood levels

Responses to mechanical and gravitational forces

132
Q

What are the functions of calcium?

A 
Nerve impulse transmission
Muscle contraction
Blood coagulation
Cell division
Secretion by glands and nerve cells
133
Q

What is the function of parathyroid hormone?

A

Activates osteoclasts to rise blood calcium levels

134
Q

What is wolff’s law?

A

Bones get thicker with the more stressed put on them

135
Q

What is a nondisplaced fracture?

A

Ends of the bone retain normal position

136
Q

What is a displaced fracture?

A

Ends of the bone are out of normal position

137
Q

What is a complete fracture?

A

The bone is broken all the way through

138
Q

What is an incomplete fracture?

A

The bone is not broken all the way through

139
Q

What is a compound fracture?

A

The bone is penetrating the skin

140
Q

What is a simple fracture?

A

The bone is not penetrating the skin

141
Q

What is a compression fracture?

A

Bone is crushed

142
Q

What is a comminuted fracture?

A

Bone fragments into three or more pieces

143
Q

What is a spiral fracture?

A

Breaks occurs from excessive twisting force

144
Q

What is an epiphyseal fracture?

A

Epiphysis and diaphysis separate along the epiphyseal plate

145
Q

What is a depressed fracture?

A

Broken bone portion is pressed inwards

146
Q

What is a greenstick fracture?

A

Bone bends and only one side of the bone breaks

147
Q

What are the stages of bone repair?

A

Hematoma forms
Fibrocartilaiginous forms
Bony callus forms
Bone remodeling occurs

148
Q

What is osteomalacia?

A

Poorly mineralized bone

Soft and weak

149
Q

What is osteoporosis?

A

Osteoclats work faster than osteoblasts

150
Q

What are the functions of joints?

A

Mobility

Hold skeleton together

151
Q

What are the functional classifications of joints?

A

Synarthroses - immoveable
Amphiarthroses
Diarthroses - freely moving

152
Q

What are the structural classifications of joints?

A

Fibrous joints
Cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints

153
Q

What are the characteristics of fibrous joints?

A

Held together by dense fibrous connective tissue

154
Q

What are the three types of fibrous joints?

A

Sutures
Syndemoses - immoveable joint held by ligaments
Gomphoses - Peg and socket, immoveable (teeth)

155
Q

What are the two types of catilaginous joints?

A

Synchondroses - bones united by hyaline cartilage

Symphyses - bones united by fibrocartilage

156
Q

What are the six features of synovial joints?

A 
Articular cartilage
Synovial cavity
Articular capsule
Synovial fluid
Reinforcing ligaments
Nerves and blood vessels
157
Q

What are the four additional structures of synocial joints?

A

Fatty pads
Articular discs
Bursae
Tendon sheaths

158
Q

What are fatty pads?

A

Serve as a cushion

159
Q

What are articular discs?

A

Stabilize joint and improve fit

Menisci

160
Q

What are bursae?

A

Sacs lined with synovial membrane

Reduce friction

161
Q

What are tendon sheaths?

A

Elongated bursae wrapped around tendon subjected to friction

162
Q

What are tendons?

A

Attach muscles to bone

163
Q

What are ligaments?

A

Attach bone to bone

164
Q

What stabilizes synovial joints?

A

Shapes of articular surface (minor)
Ligament number and location (Limited role)
Muscle tendons that cross joints (major role)

165
Q

What are the four ranges of motion permitted by synovial joints?

A

Nonaxial - slipping movements only
Uniaxial - movement in one plane
Biaxial - movement in two planes
Multiaxial - movement in multiple planes

166
Q

What are the six types of synovial joints?

A 
Plane - nonaxial
Hinge - uniaxial
Pivot - Uniaxial
Condylar - Biaxial
Saddle - Biaxial
Ball and socket - Multiaxial
167
Q

What are the four major synovial joints?

A

Knee
Shoulder
Elbow
Hip

168
Q

What are the two joints in the knee?

A

Femoropatellar - Plane joint

Lateral and medial tibiofemoral

169
Q

What are the capsular and extracapsular ligaments that help stabilize the knee?

A

Fibular and tibial collateral ligaments
Oblique popliteal ligament
Arcuate popliteal ligament

Prevent hyperextension

170
Q

What are the intrascapular ligaments that help stabilize the knee?

A

Anterior cruciate ligament
Posterior cruciate ligament

Prevent anterior and posterior displacement

171
Q

What are the common injuries that occur to the knee?

A

Collateral ligaments
Cruciate ligaments
Cartilage (menisci)

172
Q

What kind of joint is the shoulder joint?

A

Ball and socket joint

173
Q

What does the coracohumeral ligament do in the shoulder?

A

Helps support the weight of the upper limb

174
Q

What are the four rotator cuff tendons that encircle the shoulder joint?

A

Subscapularis
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres minor

175
Q

What does the elbow joint consist of?

A

Trochlear notch of the ulna with the trochlea of the humerous
Hinge joint

176
Q

What are the two ligaments that help stabilize the elbow?

A

Anular ligament - Surrounds head of radius, allows rotation

Ulnar collateral ligament - prevents displacement of elbow

177
Q

What is the acetabular labrum?

A

Extension of cartilage that helps hold head of femur in place

178
Q

What are the ligaments that reinforce the hip?

A

Iliofemoral ligament
Pubofemoral ligament
Ischiofemoral ligament
Ligamentum ligament

179
Q

What is the name of the joint in the jaw?

A

Tempromandibular joint

Allows hinge and gliding

180
Q

What are the common joint injuries?

A

Cartilage tears - repaired by arthroscopic surgery
Sprains - Ligaments are stretched or torn
Strains - overstretching of a muscle or muscle tendon
Dislocations - luxations
Subluxation - Partial dislocation

181
Q

What is bursitis?

A

Inflammation of bursae

182
Q

What is tendonitis?

A

Inflammation of tendon sheaths caused by overuse

183
Q

What is arthritis?

A

Stiffness and swelling in joints

184
Q

What are the different types of arthritis?

A

Osteoarthritis - wear and tear
Rheumatoid - autoimmune disorder, genetic
Gouty - affects the big toe

Anatomy and Physiology (8 decks)

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