Exam 2 Flashcards
Job Design
Involves specifying the content and methods of the job
-who
-what
-where
-how
-ergonomics
Ergonomics
Designing jobs so as to not cause injury to the worker in the short term or over long term
Working conditions include
-Temperature and humidity
-ventilation
-illumination
-safety
-noise and vibrations
-work time and wok breaks
Method analysis
Different sources:
-Changes in tool and equipment
-Changes in product design or new products
-changes in materials or procedures
-other factors( accidents, quality problems)
Developing work methods
Develop methods that are motion efficient, the analyst attempts to:
-eliminate unnecessary motions
-combine activities
-reduce fatigue
-improve the arrangement of the workplace
-improve the design of tools and equipment
Frederick Taylor
-Job specialization (short, repetitive tasks)
-study the job scientifically and devise the “one best way” to do it: then train the workers accordingly
-docused on the efficiency of the individual worker and the work itseld
-people are motivated by money
-stopwatch study
Frank Gilbreth
-time and motion study
-job simplification and the elimination of wasted motion
-“therbligs” are basic elements of motion
Job expansion
Adding more variety of jobs to reduce boredom
-job enlargement- horizontal job loading
-job rotation
-job enrichment- vertical job loading
-employee empowerment
-satisfied workers are more productive
Quantitative tools for work measurement
-stopwatch study
-work sampling
Stopwatch study
-job times can be used for manpower planning, scheduling and training
- used to develop standard times, how long it takes an average worker to do a task
-for short repetitive tasks
What determines sample size (n)
- How accurate we want to be
- The desired level of confidence (more accurate you need more samples)
- How much variation exists within the job elements
Steps for time watch study
- Conduct a pilot study to estimate the mean and standard deviation
- Calculate n, the total observations needed
3 . Collect all i=data and calculate, observed time, normal time and standard time
Work Sampling
-to determine the proportion of time spent on various activities
-for the analysis of non repetitive jobs and ratio/delay studies
Phases of quality assurance
- Accepting sampling
- Process control
- Continuous improvement
Acceptance sampling
-inspection of lots of before/after production
-least progressive
Process control
Inspection and corrective action during production
-used during production process/ inspecting during transformation
Continuous improvement
-Quality built into the process,
-the most progressive
Inspection process
-inputs
-transformation process
-outputs
Inputs
-acceptance sampling
-inspect a sample
Transformation process
Process control
-creating product/service
Outputs
-acceptance sampling
-most expensive point in-house to discover something is wrong
Statistical process control (SPC)
Periodically taking samples of process output and computing sample statistics to deside if the process is in or out of control
Managerial considerations
-at what point in the process to use control charts
-what size samples to take
-sample frequency
-what type of control charts to use
variables or attributes
Control Chart
Purpose: to monitor process output to see if variation is random
-A time ordered plot of sample statistics
-upper and lower control limits draw the line between random and nonrandom variation
Variables
-things you can measure
Sample mean charts: measures the central tendency of a process/ on average
Sample range charts: measures process dispersion/ how spread out units are
Attributes
-things you can count
-p-chart
-C-Chart
P chart
-p-chart: monitors the proportion of defectives
-when you can count occurrences and nonoccurances
C-Chart
Monitors the number of defects per unit
-when you can only count occurrences
Random variation
Natural variations in the output of a process, created by countless minor factors
Assignable variation
A variation whose source can be identified
Type 1 error
-alpha risk/ producers risk
-the risk of saying “the process is out of control when its not found in the tails of distribution
Producers risk
Stopping process when nothing is wrong
Processing selection
Deciding on the way production of goods and services will be organized
Issues in process selection
-Variety of production
-volume
-flexibility
Types of processing
-job shop
-batch
-repetitive/assembly
-continuous
Job shop
-Customized goods or service
-Advantage:Able to handle a wide variety of work
-Disadvantage:slow, high cost per unit, complex planning and scheduling
-low volume/high variety
-general purpose equipment and high skilled employees
-lower equipment utilization and made to order finish goods
Batch processing
-semi-standardized goods other than services
-Advantage: flexibility; easy to add or change products or services
-Disadvantage: moderate cost per unit; moderate scheduling complexity
-moderate volume, moderate variety
-flexibility to run batches of different models, colors flavors, styles, or sizes
-moderately skilled employees; general purpose equipment
Repetitive/assembly
-standardized goods or services
-Advantage: low cost; high volume; efficient
-Disadvantage: low flexibility, high cost of downtime
-specialized equipment
-use of assembly lines; automated lines or low skilled workers
Continuous
-Highly standardized goods or service
-Advantage: very efficient; very high volume
-Disadvantage: very rigid, lack of variety, costly to change, very high cost of downtime
-low variety
-lower skilled line workers or highly skilled workers to oversee the automated process
Mass customization
-high volume/high variety
-flexible and efficient(low cost)
Facilities layout
-the configuration of departments, work centers and equipment with particular emphasis on movement of work
(Customer or materials) through the system
-Key to process layout is distance minimization
THER NEED FOR LAYOUT PLANNING
- Inefficient operations
-high costs
-bottlenecks
2.accidents or safety hazards - Changes in product or service design
- Introduction of new products or services.
- Changes in methods or equipment.
- Changes in output, volume or product mix.
- Changes in environmental or other legal requirements
- Morale problems.
Basic layout types with processed types
-assembly line
-process/department layout
-Fix position, layout
-Combination layout
Assembly line
For repetitive and continuous processing and mass customization
Process/Department layouts
For job shops and batch processing
Fixed position layout
For projects
Assembly line layout advantages
-High rate of output
-Low unit cost
-Labor specialization
-low material handling cost per unit
-High utilization of labor and equipment
-Established, routing and scheduling
-routine accounting purchasing, and inventory control
Assembly line disadvantages
-creates dull,repetitive jobs
-poorly skilled workers may not maintain equipment or quality of output
-fairly inflexible to changes in volume product or process design
-Highly susceptible to shutdown
-preventative maintenance, capacity for quick repair in spear part inventories are necessary expenses
-Individual incentive plans are impractical
Designing assembly lines: Line balancing
is the processing of assigning task to workstations in such a way that the workstations have approximately equal time requirements
Cycle time
The maximum time each workstation has to complete the task
-How often a finish product comes off the production line
Fix position layouts
The product or project remains stationary, and workers, materials, and equipment brought to the job site as needed
-where you are building stay put
Appraisal costs
Inspecting or testing to uncovered defects
Prevention cost
Total quality management training, planning and continuous improvement techniques to prevent defects from occurring
Internal failure costs
To fix problems detected while the product is still with the manufacturer or service provider
-rework,swap,downtime
External failure cost
To fix problems detected after the product/service is delivered to the customer
-warranty, returns, liability
Consequences of poor quality
-Loss of business
-liability
-productivity will be dragged down
-Costs
Quality of design
The amount of quality designed into the prototype of the product or service
Quality of conformance
-absence of variation or consistency, making sure each product/service is just like the prototype
-taguchi
Ways to attain consistency
-fail safing (mistake proofing)
-Robust design (stronger, more resilient design)
-kaizen (continuous improvement)
Edward deming
-American statistician
-taught Japanese businesses about statistical process control after World War II
-deming prize
-14 points
Three main points of Demings 14 points
-8. Driving out fear so that everyone may work effectively for the company.
-10. Eliminate numerical goals, posters, and slogans for the workforce asking for new levels of productivity without providing methods.
-11. Eliminate work standards that prescribe numerical quotas.
Total quality management
-involving everyone in an organization in a continual effort to improve quality and achieve customer satisfaction by finding solutions to problems
-respecting workers
-Conserving resources
-Fostering joy in work
-Creating a profitable and sustainable business
Demmings key point
-94% of all workplace problems are problems with the system
-only 6% of problems are caused by the workers themselves
Key points of Demings bowl of beads demonstration
-many managers are so busy chasing numbers, putting out fires, and blaming workers or trying useless tactics that they forget to look at the system itself
-collect data and establish statistical control limits to identify which red beats exist so that solutions can be found
Six sigma
A business process for improving quality, reducing costs and increasing customer satisfaction
-statistically having no more than 3.4 defects per million items produced
-Programs designed to reduce
-Competitive benchmarking
-quality at source: employees involved to generate new ideas
Quality robustness
-ability to produce products, uniformly in adverse manufacturing and environmental conditions
-Remove the effects of adverse conditions
-Small variations in materials and process do not destroy product quality
When and where to inspect
- At the suppliers plant while the supplier is producing.
- At your facility upon receipt of goods from your supplier
- Before costly or irreversible processes.
- During the step-by-step production process.
- When production or service is complete
- Before delivery to your customer.
- At the point of customer contact.
Lean operations
A flexible system of operation that minimizes waste
Benefits of lean operation
-Greater productivity
-Lower costs
-Shorter cycle times
-higher quality
Becoming lean
-Waste reduction
-continuous improvement
-Use of teams
-visual controls (kanban)
-high-quality
-minimal inventory
-Output to match demand
-Quick changeovers
-small lot sizes
-lean culture
-Close relationship with vendors
KAIZEN (continuous improvement)
-waste is anything that does not add value from the customers point of view
-Storage, inspection, delay, waiting in queues, and defective products. Do not add value and are 100% waste.
Kaizen continued
Improvement should be done gradually and consistently
-everyone should be involved
Risks of lean systems
- fewer resources available if problems occur
-supply chain disruptions can hault operations
Eight kinds of waste
-excess inventory
-overproduction
-Waiting time
-Unnecessary transporting
-Processing waste
-inefficient work methods
-Product defects
-underused people
Variability
-any deviation from the optimum process
-Inventory hides variability
-Less variability results and less waste
Sources of variability
-Poor processes, resulting in improper quantities of late or non-conforming units
-inadequate maintenance
-Unknown and changing customer demand
-Incomplete or inaccurate drawings, specifications or bills of material
Push system
Work is pushed to the next station as it is completed
Pull system
A workstation pulls output from the proceeding workstation as it is needed
-Output of the final operation is pulled by customer demand or master schedule
Improve throughput
-the rate at which units move the reprocess
-a pull system increases throughput
-Manufacturing cycle time is reduced
-push systems dump orders on the downstream stations regardless of the need
Process design; set up time reduction
-small sizes and changing product mixes require frequent set ups
-Unless these are quick and relatively inexpensive, they can be prohibitive
Fail safing
Building safeguards into a process to reduce or eliminate the potential for errors during a process
Kanban
-a card or device that authorizes the next container of material to be produced
-Pulls material through the process
-when the producer and user are not in visual contact, a card can be used otherwise a light or flag or empty spot on the floor may be adequate
Reasons for location decisions
-addition of new facilities
-marketing strategy of expansion
-growth in demand
-Depletion of basic inputs or natural resources
-Shift and markets
-Cost of doing business
-risk minimization/improved leadtimes
Strategic importance of location decisions
-long-term commitment/system design issue
-Major impact on investments, revenues, and operations
-position within the supply chain can affect locations choice
-beginning; locate near the source of raw materials
-middle: locate near suppliers or markets
-end: accessibility, consumer demographics, traffic patterns, and local customs are important
Developing location, alternative steps
- Identify the country or countries under consideration.
- Identify the general region within the country.
- Identify community alternatives.
- Identify the site alternatives.
Country Location decisions
- Political risks, government rules, attitudes, incentives.
- Cultural and economic issues.
- Location of markets.
- Purchasing power.
- Competition.
- Labor, talent, attitudes, productivity, costs.
- Availability of supplies, communications, energy.
- Exchange rates and currency risks.
Region/community decisions
- Corporate desires.
- Attractiveness of region.
- Labor availability and costs.
- Costs and availability of utilities.
- Environmental regulations.
- Government incentives and physical policies.
- Proximity to materials and customers.
- Land/construction costs.
Site decisions
- Site availability, size and cost.
- Zoning restrictions.
- Air, railway, and waterway systems, and access.
- Proximity of services/supplies needed.
- Environmental impact issues
- Customer density and demographics.
- Community attitude.
Product plant strategy
-Different plants specialized in different products or product lines
-disadvantage: you can have higher shipping costs
-All of the knowledge, equipment and operations can be in one facility
Market area plant strategy
Each plant makes most if not all of the companies products for a particular geographic area
-Disadvantage; duplicate, assembly lines
-Have finished good faster, ready to be sold
Process plant strategy
Different plants focus on different aspects of the production process
General purpose, plant strategy
Plants are flexible and capable of HANDLING a range of products.
Manufacturing/distribution considerations
-cost focus
-transportation modes/costs
-energy availability, costs
-labor costs/availability/skills
-building/leasing cost
Service/retail considerations
- Revenue focus.
- demographic: age, income
- Population/drawing area.
- Competition.
5, traffic volume/patterns - Customer access/parking.
Locational cost volume analysis
Assumptions:
1. Fixed costs are constant for the range of probable output.
2. Variable costs are linear for the range of probable output.
3. The required level of output can be closely estimated.(how much output you need.)
4. Only one product is involved.
Factor rating
An approach to a validating locations that include quantitative and qualitative inputs
