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BIO 225 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

How is a membrane potential established

A

It arises from the unequal distribution of ions (inside of the cell is more negative, outside is more positive)

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2
Q

What is equilibrium potential

A

The membrane potential at which the net flow of ions is zero

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3
Q

How is membrane potential maintained

A

Na+/K+ pump and leaky channels

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4
Q

What is depolarization

A

Membrane potential increases caused by cations entering or anions exiting

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5
Q

What is hyperpolarization

A

Membrane potential decreasing caused by cations exiting or anions entering

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6
Q

Reception zone of the neuron

A

Incoming signals are received in dendrites and converted to a change in membrane potential

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7
Q

Integration zone of the neuron

A

A change in membrane potential initiates action potentials in the axon hillock

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8
Q

Conduction zone of the neuron

A

Action potentials are conducted to axon terminals

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9
Q

Signal transmission zone of the neuron

A

Neurotransmitter release transmits a signal to the target cell

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10
Q

Graded potentials

A

Caused by ligand gated ion channels (more ligands, more depolarization)

Transient signals that occur at a specific location

Short distance

Vary in magnitude and direction

Stronger stimuli=stronger depolarization

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11
Q

Action potentials

A

All or none

Spatial summation - graded potentials close together which increases threshold

Temporal summation - increasing membrane potentizl little by little

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12
Q

Threshold

A

Membrane potential required to initiate an action potential

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13
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

The time when another action potential cannot be triggered

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14
Q

Relative refractory period

A

The time when a much stronger stimuli is required to trigger action potential

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15
Q

Relationship of stimulus strength to axon potentials

A

Stronger stimulus = higher frequency of AP’s

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16
Q

Key events of neurotransmitter release

A

Synthesized in neuron, released at pre-synapse following depolarization, bind & cause effect at post-synapse

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17
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Afferent
Unipolar
Trigger zone at interface between dendrites and axon
Carry impulse from PNS to CNS

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18
Q

Interneurons

A

Connect one neuron to another, multipolar and have many terminals, unmyelinated, many dendrites

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19
Q

Motor neurons

A

Efferent, multipolar, carry signal from CNS to target organ to elicit a response

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20
Q

How does myelination increase action potential conduction speed

A

It restricts the action potentials to the nodes of ranvier which forces electronic spread through the internodes

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21
Q

How does large-diameter axons increase action potential conduction speed

A

They decrease resistance to electrical current flow

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22
Q

Ionotropic vs metabotropic

A

Ionotropic are receptors that open/close upon a neurotransmitter binding

Metabotropic is when a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor and causes a signal transduction to occur which causes the opening/closing of a different channel elsewhere

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23
Q

Tonic receptors

A

Decrease response to stimulus as duration increases (ex. sitting down)

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24
Q

Phasic receptors

A

Firing many action potentials all at once and then stops and quickly adapts to stimulus

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25
Q

Sensory stimuli types

A

Chemoreceptors: presence of chemicals in environment
Mechanoreceptors: detect pressure and movement
Photoreceptors: detect light
Thermoreceptors: detect temperature
Electroreceptors: detect electric fields
Magnetoreceptors: detect magnetic field

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26
Q

Unimodal

A

One particular afferent neuron is associated with one type of receptor

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27
Q

Polymodal receptors

A

sensitive to multiple modalities, overlapping receptive fields, lateral inhibition

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28
Q

Lateral inhibition

A

Suppresses signals from neighboring neurons which enhances the focus on the strongest stimuli and prevents overlap

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29
Q

Dynamic range

A

The difference between the maximum and minimum stimulus intensities a sensory system can detect and encode

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30
Q

Range fractionation

A

Encodes a wide range of stimulus intensities via high and low threshold receptors

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31
Q

Logarithmic encoding

A

Distinguishes between low intensities with sight and hearing weight

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32
Q

Discrimination

A

Distinguishes between different stimuli based on intensity, location, modality, or duration

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33
Q

Exteroception

A

external to body (mouth/nasal passages) and includes olfaction, gustation, nocioception, and pheromones

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34
Q

Interoceptors

A

Internal to body (blood pH, chemosensors in the stomach)

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35
Q

Olfaction

A

Smell
ORNs express GPCRs
single odorant GPCR

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36
Q

Gustatory

A

Taste
GPCRs to detect sweet and bitter

37
Q

Nicotinic receptor

A

Acetylcholine receptor in the neuromuscular junctions, ganglionic neurons, and adrenal medulla (ionotropic)

38
Q

Muscarinic receptors

A

Acetylcholine receptor in the gut, heart, bronchioles, sweat glands, and skeletal muscle (metabotropic)

39
Q

A1 receptor

A

Adrenergic receptor that causes vasoconstriction in smooth muscle

40
Q

A2 receptor

A

Adrenergic receptor that inactivates calcium channels and reduces the release of NE

41
Q

B1 receptor

A

Adrenergic receptor that activates calcium channels and increases muscle contraction in cardiac muscle

42
Q

B2 receptor

A

Adrenergic receptor that reduces muscle contraction and causes vasodilation

43
Q

Signal transduction pathways in olfactory receptor cells

A
  1. Odorant binds to odorant receptor which causes a conformational change
  2. G-protein is activated and G(olf) moves through membrane and activates adenylate cyclase
  3. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cAMP
  4. cAMP opens cAMP gated ion channels
  5. Ca2+ and Na+ enter the cell causing generator potential
  6. Ca2+ opens Ca2+-activated Cl- channels causing Cl- to exit the cell causing depolarization
  7. Generator potential opens voltage-gated Na+ channels triggering APs
44
Q

Sweet signal transduction

A
  1. Sweet substance binds to receptor, causes conformational change
  2. Activated G-Protein activates adenylate cyclase
  3. Adenylate cyclase catalyzes ATP to cAMP
  4. cAMP activates protein kinase that phosphorylates and closes K+ channel
  5. Depolarization opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels
  6. Influx of Ca2+ causes neurotransmitter release
45
Q

Bitter signal transduction

A
  1. Bitter substance binds to receptor, causes conformational change
  2. Activated G-Protein activates phospholipase C (PLC)
  3. PLC catalyzes conversion of PIP2 into 2nd messenger IP3
  4. IP3 causes release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores
  5. Influx of Ca2+ causes neurotransmitter release
46
Q

Salty signal transduction

A
  1. Na+ from salty foods enters through Na+ channels
  2. Resulting depolarization opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels
  3. Influx of Ca2+ causes neurotransmitter release
47
Q

Sour signal transduction

A
  1. H+ from sour foods block K+ channel
  2. Blockage prevents K+ from leaving cell
  3. depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
  4. Influx of Ca2+ causes neurotransmitter release
48
Q

Structures that mediate mechanosensation in touch

A

They are located outside of the body, merkel’s disks (tonic), ruffini corpuscle & pacinian corpuscles (phasic), free nerve endings

49
Q

Structures that mediate mechanosensation in proprioception

A

golgi tendon organ (relaxtion), muscle spindle fibers (contraction)

50
Q

Signal transduction in hair cells

A

Higher K+ outside, higher Na+ inside

Mechanically gated K+ channels are attached to afferent sensory neuron

TRP’s open when kinocillium move to the right, K+ rushes in and stimulates AP, Ca+ channels and neurotransmitter is releases

TRP’s close when kinocillium moves toward the right

51
Q

Utricle

A

Detect movements of otolithic membranes up and down

52
Q

Saccule

A

Detect movements of otolithic membranes side to side

53
Q

Semicircular canals

A

Cupula recognizes rotation

54
Q

Cochlea

A

Amplify and transduces basilar membrane movement

55
Q

Pinna

A

Protects ears

56
Q

Tympanic membrane

A

Ear drum, vibrates sound in & out

57
Q

ossicles

A

Bones move in and out

58
Q

What makes up the vestibular apparatus

A

Utricle, saccule, semicircular canals

59
Q

Organ of corti

A

Recognizes volume and frequency

60
Q

Cornea

A

fixed, refocuses light

60
Q

Ciliary photoreceptors

A

Resting membrane potential at -30mV, when stimulated it is hyperpolarized

Composed of rods and cones

Expresses c-opsins via Gi

60
Q

Aqueous humor

A

watery liquid

60
Q

Iris

A

colored part

60
Q

Rhabdomeric

A

Has resting membrane potential higher than neurons
More light = taller depolarization
Conformational change induces G-protein signaling

61
Q

Lens

A

focuses light

62
Q

Cilliary bodies

A

contract to change focus of light on the eye

63
Q

Pupil

A

focuses

64
Q

Vitreous humor

A

Thick liquid (transmits light)

65
Q

retina

A

photo sensors

66
Q

fovea

A

location of focus center

67
Q

optic disk

A

nerve location

68
Q

choroid

A

dark pigmented, reflects light

69
Q

Rods

A

Converge onto one nerve and are on or off
Rod -> bipolar cell -> ganglion cell -> optic nerve
Sensitive to dim light
controls Brightness

70
Q

Cones

A

Cone shaped
Sensitive to bright light
Color sensors

71
Q

Pathway of stimulus to effector

A

Internal/ecternal sensory stimuli -> afferent neuronss -> CNS -> efferent neurons -> motor or autonomic pathways -> body systems

72
Q

Division of autonomic nervous system

A

Sympathetic, parasympathetic, enteric

73
Q

Afferent vs efferent

A

Afferent receives the stimuli from internal and external sensory stimuli

Efferent receives message from spinal cord to signal to rest of body

74
Q

How are neurons related to nerves

A

Many neurons make up one nerve

75
Q

What are tracts

A

Bundles of axons in the CNS

76
Q

Ascending vs descending tracts

A

Ascending is sensory/afferent information, descending is motor/efferent information

77
Q

Dura mater

A

tough, outermost layer of spinal cord

78
Q

Arachnoid

A

weblike, middle layer of spinal cord

79
Q

Pia mater

A

delicate matter, thing inner layer of spinal cord

80
Q

Ipsalateral vs contralateral

A

same side vs opposite side

81
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Stress, excitement, physical activity, fight or flight, increases HR

82
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Active during rest, resting and digesting, maintenance activites

83
Q

Enteric nervous system

A

Digestion

84
Q

Sympathetic vs parasympathetic

A

Parasympathetic: preganglionic neuron long, postganglionic short, ACH, Muscarinic receptors

Sympathetic: preganglionic neuron is short, post ganglionic is long, NE, adrenergic receptors

85
Q

Relationship between parasympathetic and sympathetic branches

A

Antagonistic

BIO 225 (5 decks)

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