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BIO 225 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Animals are classified as

A

Multicellular eukaryotes that can move from one place to another

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2
Q

Locomotion

A

the ability to move from place to place using muscle and nervous tissue

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3
Q

Physiology

A

The study of how animals work

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4
Q

Some animals are sessile, but it is an important distinction for animals that

A

They have some sort of locomotion during their lives ex. sponge, coral, sea anemone

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5
Q

Physiological processes

A

Obey the laws of physics and chemistry

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6
Q

Physiological phenotypes are

A

Influenced by genetics and the environment

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7
Q

Evolution changes

A

The genotype of a population over many generations

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8
Q

Levels of biological organization

A

Atom, Molecule, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organisms, Populations, Communities, Ecosystems, Biosphere

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9
Q

Phenotype

A

Observable characteristics including morphologym, physiology, and behavior

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10
Q

Structure/Morphology vs Physiology

A

Structure is Anatomy, Physiology is function

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11
Q

Adaptation

A

Changes in population over evolutionary time as a result of natural selection that improve the survivability or reproductive fitness of the species

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12
Q

Conformers vs Regulators

A
  • Conformers = body temperature and chemistry varies directly with the environment
  • Regulators = body temperature and chemistry remain constantly regardless of the changing environment
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13
Q

Endothermy

A

Organisms with bodies that are warmed by heat generated by metabolism. This heat is usually used to maintain a relatively stable body temperature higher than that of the external environment (warm blooded)

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14
Q

Ectothermy

A

Determination of body temperature primarily by external thermal conditions.

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15
Q

Regulatory Mechanisms

A

Negative Feedback, Positive Feedback, Feed-Forward (Anticipatory) Action, Acclimatization

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16
Q

Feed-forward (Anticipatory) Action/Mechanism

A

Mechanism to anticipate a change in a regulated variable and improve the speed of the homeostatic response, ex. belly growling at lunch time or putting jacket on before going out in the cold

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17
Q

When placental mammals are ready to give birth, the placenta of the fetus starts to
produce oxytocin which causes the mothers uterus to begin to contract. These contractions
in-turn produce prostaglandins which leads to more oxytocin production. Eventually, this
leads to birth of the offspring. Which of the following types of feedback does this
exemplify?

A

Positive Feedback

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18
Q

Acclimatization

A

Adjustment in physiological function(s) in response to changes in the environment (multiple factors)
-typically reversible
-example: recovering from jetlag

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19
Q

Acclimation

A

A laboratory phenomenon in response to only one factor

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20
Q

Chemical composition of Cells

A

Water (70%) organic molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and inorganic ions (less than 1%) Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-, bicarbonate, phosphate, etc.

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21
Q

Basic Cell Structure

A

Plasma Membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucleus, Mitochondria

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22
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

Helps to maintain the composition of intra and extracellular fluids
-regulates traffic in and out of cell
Forms a framework for protein components of cell
Detects chemical messengers at cell surface
Links adjacent cells together

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23
Q

Membrane Junctions

A

Tight junctions: impermeable barrier
Desmosomes (spots)/Adherens junctions (band): anchoring
Gap Junctions: communication

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24
Q

Plasma membrane structure

A

phospholipid bilayer, channel protein, cholesterol, integral proteins, peripheral proteins, sugar resides of glycoprotein and glycoprotein

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25
Q

What can travel through the phospholipid bilayer

A

Hydrophobic molecules including O2, CO2, N2, lipids and cholesterol. Also small, uncharged polar molecules including glycerol

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26
Q

What cannot travel through the phospholipid bilayer

A

Large, uncharged polar molecules including glucose and sucrose. Ions such as H+, Na+, NCO3-, Ca2+, Cl-, Mg2+, K+. Charged polar molecules such as Amino Acids and ATP

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27
Q

Steroid molecules, such as cholesterol and vitamin D, pass easily across the membrane.
These are fairly large molecules. The reason they can pass easily across the membrane is
because they (mark all that apply):

A

They are lipids and hydrophobic

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28
Q

Simple (Passive) Diffusion

A

Concentrated to One Region -> Uniform Distribution

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29
Q

Electrochemical Gradients

A

Gradients can be chemical, electrical, or both (electrochemical) Form of energy storage (Potential Energy)

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30
Q

Net Flux

A

The difference between the two one-way fluxes. The measure of the net gain of molecules by one side and the net loss from the other side

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31
Q

Does diffusion stop once equilibrium is reached

A

No, the movement in and out is just equal

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32
Q

Passive Diffusion

A

Movement of molecules due to the intrinsic kinetic energy of molecules. No metabolic energy (ATP) used, Movement from higher to lower concentration, At equilibrium Net Flux = 0

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33
Q

The direction and magnitude of net flux depend on

A

Permeability, concentration gradient, temperature, surface area, size of molecule, distance

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34
Q

Can water pass through the plasma membrane by simple diffusion

A

No, water is excluded by the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid bilayer

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35
Q

Osmosis

A

Passive transport of water, The net diffusion of water from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration
Facilitated by aquaporins

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36
Q

Hypertonic vs Hypotonic

A

Hyper-more concentrated, Hypo less concentrated

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37
Q

Osmolarity

A

Total concentration of solutes in a solution, depends on the total number of molecules NOT individual type
Relative terms for comparing the osmolarity of two
solutions
* Isosmotic
* Hyperosmotic
* Hyposmotic

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38
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

Pressure generated by water moving based on osmolarity

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39
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A

Pressure exerted by the standing column of water - gravity

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40
Q

Molecules that are too large and/or polar to diffuse are transported across plasma membrane by mediated transport mechanisms

A

Facilitated diffusion, active transport, bulk transport

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41
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Transmembrane proteins facilitate
diffusion of some polar or charged
molecules across the plasma membrane
Molecules move down their
electrochemical gradient
No metabolic energy (ATP) required for
transport

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42
Q

Channels

A

provide corridors for polar or charged molecules to pass through the
plasma membrane

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43
Q

Ion channels

A

may be selective or non-selective

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44
Q

Selective ion channels

A

Na+ channels, K+ channels, Cl- channels

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45
Q

Non-selective ion channels

A

Monovalent cation channels allow Na+, K+, and Li+ ions

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46
Q

Constitutive channels

A

always open such as aquaporins

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47
Q

Gated channels

A

Open transiently in response to stimulus such as ligand-gated channels, voltage-gated channels, and mechanically-gated channels

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48
Q

Ligand-gated channels

A

A signal molecule (ligand) binds to the receptor/channel regulating the opening and closing of the gates (ex. acetylcholine regulates entry of Na+ into muscle cells

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49
Q

Voltage-Gated Channels

A

Regulated by electrical state of the cell (ex. voltage-gated Na+ channels activated by membrane)

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50
Q

Mechanically-Gated Channels

A

Regulated by a physical change ex. pressure

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51
Q

Facilitated diffusion by permease/carrier

A

binds the substrate, undergoes a conformational change, and releases substrate to other side
ATP not needed
Transport down the concentration gradient by proteins (ex. GLUT transporters)

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52
Q

Active Transport

A

Differs from facilitated diffusion in that transported molecules must bind to the transporters

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53
Q

Primary Active Transport

A

Requires ATP, movement of solutes against their gradients

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54
Q

Ca2+ ATPase/Pump

A

Hydrolysis of ATP directly required for the function of the carriers
Molecule or ion binds to
“recognition site” on one side of carrier protein
Binding stimulates phosphorylation
(breakdown of ATP) of carrier
Carrier protein undergoes
conformational change
Hinge-like motion releases
transported molecules to opposite side of membrane.

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55
Q

Na+/K+ ATPase/Pump

A

Carrier protein is also an ATPase enzyme that converts ATP to ADP and Pi
Actively exports 3 Na + and imports 2 K+ inward against concentration gradient.
Functions of steep gradient:
 Involvement in electrochemical impulses
 Promotes osmotic flow
 Regulates resting calorie expenditure
and basal metabolic rate
 Provides energy for “coupled transport”
of other molecules

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56
Q

Secondary Active Transport

A

No direct input of energy required, but depends on the electrochemical difference established by the primary active transport
“Coupled” transport
Energy needed for “uphill” movement obtained from “downhill” transport of Na +.
Hydrolysis of ATP by Na +/K+ pump required indirectly to maintain Na + gradient

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57
Q

Ion channels

A

Move single ions down electrochemical or concentration gradients i.e. CFTR

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58
Q

Antiporters

A

Transport similarly charged molecules in opposite directions ie NA+/K+ ATPase

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59
Q

Symporters

A

transport move molecules the same direction. Both may or may not be charged. ie. SGLT transporters move sodium
down its electrochemical gradient to concentrate glucose

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60
Q

Electroneutral cotransporters

A

move anions and cations in the same direction.

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61
Q

Electroneutral exchangers

A

reversible transporters driven by
electrochemical gradients i.e. the Cl - /HCO3- exchanger in red blood cells

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62
Q

Bulk transport

A

Simultaneous movement of many large molecules that cannot be transported by carriers

63
Q

Exocytosis

A

Fusion of the membrane-bound vesicles that contains cellular products with the plasma membrane

64
Q

Endocytosis

A

Specific molecules can be taken into the cell because of the interaction of the molecule and protein receptor

65
Q

How are epithelial cells transporters distributed

A

Asymmetrically, some on the apical side and others on the basolateral side

66
Q

How are epithelial cells connected

A

Protein linkages including tight junctions, leaky, junctions, and leaky tight junctions

67
Q

What organelle is abundant in epithelial cells

A

Mitochondria

68
Q

What do we know about the different types of cells in epithelial tissue

A

There is a high level of cell type diversity

69
Q

Simple epithelium

A

Single layer of cells, in direct contact with the basement membrane (lungs)

70
Q

Stratified epithelium

A

Multilayered, usually found where body linings are under mechanical pressure, generally flatten as they are farther away from basement membrane. (skin, urethra, esophagus)

71
Q

Keratinized

A

Mostly dead, lack nuclei and cytoplasm, contain tough resistant protein called keratin – found mostly in the outer layers of the skin

72
Q

Parakeratinzied

A

Contains keratin, retain nuclei but it is reduced (pyknotic) – found in the esophagus and oral mucosa

73
Q

Transitional

A

stretchy, appears to be stratified cuboidal – mostly in the bladder, ureters, and urethra

74
Q

Simple squamous epithelium

A

Allows materials to pass through by diffusion and filtration, and secretes lubricating substance. Lungs and blood vessels

75
Q

Simple cuboidal epithelium

A

Secretes and absorbs, in ducts and secretory portions of small glands and in kidney tubules

76
Q

Simple columnar epithelium

A

Absorbs and secretes mucous and enzymes, ciliated tissues are in bronchi, uterine tubes, and uterus; in the digestive tract and bladder

77
Q

Stratified squamous epithelium

A

Protects against abrasion in esophagus, mouth and vagina

78
Q

Transitional epithelium

A

Allows the urinary organs to expand and stretch, lines the bladder urethra and ureters

79
Q

Energy

A

The basic unit for energy is the Joule

80
Q

Enzymes

A

Organic catalysts that reduce activation energy, they are dissolved solutes and do not make reactions happen but reduce activation energy.

81
Q

Energy carrying molecules

A

Often involves a phosphate bond, common molecules include (ATP, ADP, GTP, PCr), acetyl-CoA uses a CoA instead of phosphate

82
Q

Proteins

A

polymers of amino acids that are bound by peptide bonds. Some amino acids are polar and some are nonpolar.

83
Q

What leads to protein structure

A

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary Structure

84
Q

What helps to fold proteins correctly

A

Chaperones. Heat shock proteins (HsP) help to maintain or refold proteins, not all chaperones are responsive to heat, but all are referred to as Hsp (ex. Hsp70)

85
Q

What can denature proteins

A

Head/pH changes

86
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Making up largest part of intake, polymers made of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds

87
Q

How are polysaccharides composed?

A

Linear or branched fashion (amylose, amylopectin, glycogen)

88
Q

Gluceneogenesis

A

Input starts with amino acid, pyruvate, or small lipids
Occurs in the mitochondria and cytoplasm
The end product is glucose or glycogen

89
Q

Glycolysis

A

Starts with glucose (other hexoses are converted to glucose)
Occurs in the cytoplasm
End product is pyruvate
Under anaerobic conditions there are three possible outcomes both species and condition dependent

90
Q

The breakdown of glycolysis produces pyruvate which can be converted into pyruvate. What is the anaerobic product of pyruvate oxidation? What is the aerobic product?

A

Lactic acid; acetyl-CoA

91
Q

Lipids

A
  • Composed of glycerol and up to three fatty acids
  • Fatty acids are long changes of hydrocarbons
  • Highly non -polar
92
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A

no double bonds
animal products, solid at room temperature

93
Q

Monounsaturated

A

one double bond

94
Q

Polyunsaturated

A

more than one double bond

95
Q

Fatty acid oxidation

A

Fatty acids are broken down to produce acetyl-CoA
Each pair of carbons in the FA chain are used to produce 1 acetyl-CoA

96
Q

Direct cell signaling

A

Signaling cell > Gap Junction > Chemical Messenger > Response from Target Cell

97
Q

Ligand

A

A chemical message sent from one cell to another

98
Q

Receptor

A

the target for a ligand on binding either elicits a response or prevents a response

99
Q

Natural Ligand

A

Endogenously produced

100
Q

Agonist

A

Mimics the natural ligand

101
Q

Antagonist

A

binds to prevent ligand binding (inhibits)

102
Q

Signal Transduction

A

A cascade of molecular events triggered by ligand/receptor binding

103
Q

Gap junctions

A

-direct connections between cells
-cells need to be in contact
-tunnels for messages from one cell to another

104
Q

Autocrine signaling

A

Cell sends a message to the outside of the cell and then sends it back to the cell

105
Q

Paracrine signaling

A

Message from one cell gets sent out of the cell and then gets sent into another cell

106
Q

Endocrine signaling

A

the target cells are distant to the releasing cells via hormones

107
Q

Neural signaling

A

Always involves connection between neural cells and other neural cells or tissues/sensors
Involves the change in membrane potential due to changes in ion locations inside or outside the neural cells

108
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical substances produced by specialized organs called endocrine glands and transported through the bloodstream to other tissues where they act to elicit a specific physiological response

109
Q

Endocrine glands

A

no ducts, highly vascularized ex. hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, testes/ovaries

110
Q

Cushing’s Syndrome

A

Too much cortisol (hypercortisolism)

111
Q

Addison’s Disease

A

too little (hypocortisolism)

112
Q

Broad Definition of Hormones

A

Chemical substances released by one cell which act on another cell

113
Q

Six types of chemical messengers

A

Peptides, steroids, amines, lipids, purines, gases

114
Q

Hydrophilic messengers

A

intracellular vesicles, exocytosis, dissolved in extracellular fluids, transmembrane receptors, rapid effect

115
Q

Hydrophobic messengers

A

synthesized on demand diffusion across membrane, short distances: dissolved in extracellular fluid, long distances: bound to carrier proteins, transmembrane or intracellular receptors, slower or rapid effect

116
Q

Steroid hormones

A

derived from cholesterol, synthesized by smooth ER or mitochondria, three classes of them, hydrophobic, synthesized on demand, can diffuse through plasma membrane, cannot be stored in the cell

117
Q

Mineralocorticoids

A

Electrolyte balance (water ion balance)

118
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

Stress hormones

119
Q

Reproductive hormones

A

Regulate sex-specific characteristics

120
Q

Amine hormones

A

Hormones that posess amine group (NH2) ex, acetylcholine, catecholamines, dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin, melatonin, histamine, thyroid hormones

121
Q

Are amine hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic

A

Hydrophilic aside from thyroid hormones

122
Q

Peptide/Protein Hormones

A

Hydrophilic, soluble in aqueous solutions, travels to target cell dissolved in extracellular fluids, binds to transmembrane receptors (signal transduction), effects are rapid

123
Q

Peptide Hormone Production and Release

A

mRNA transcribes polypeptide in rough ER, polypeptide becomes Preprohormone, this gets cleaved and is exocytosed from the cell as a prohormone, this prohormone travels through the golgi apparatus (still as a prohormone), prohormone is moved into a secretory vesicle and is broken into active hormone and peptide fragment, is then exocytosed into the extracellular fluid

124
Q

how are steroid hormones transported to the target cell

A

carrier proteins

125
Q

What kind of receptors do hydrophilic messengers bind to

A

transmembrane receptors

126
Q

What kind of receptors do hydrophobic messengers bind to

A

intracellular receptors

127
Q

What happens to receptors when ligands bind

A

Change conformation

128
Q

Law of mass action

A

Receptors can become saturated at high levels

129
Q

What does a high Kd indicate

A

low-affinity receptor

130
Q

What does a low Kd indicate

A

high-affinity receptor

131
Q

How can the ligand-receptor complex be inactivated

A
  1. ligand removed by distant tissues (bloodstream)
  2. ligand taken up by adjacent cells (endocytosis)
  3. ligand degraded by extracellular enzymes
  4. ligand-receptor complex removed by endocytosis
  5. receptor inactivation (phosphorylation)
  6. inactivation of signal transduction pathway
132
Q

Receptor isoform

A

Expressed on different target cells, different responses to the same ligand

133
Q

Intracellular receptors

A

Ligand diffuses across the cell membrane, binds to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus, L-R complex binds to specific DNA sequences, regulates transcription of target genes

134
Q

Guanylate Cyclase

A
  1. Ligand binds to a receptor guanylate cyclase, changing its conformation
  2. The activated receptor catalyzes the conversion of GTP to cGMP
  3. The cGMP acts as a second messenger and binds to PKG
  4. The activated G-kinase phosphorylates proteins on serine or threonine residues
135
Q

Tyrosine Kinase Receptor

A
  1. Ligand binds to receptor
  2. Receptors dimerize and autophosphorylate
  3. Phosphorylated receptors interact with protein kinases
  4. Protein kinases signal to Ras protein
  5. Ras switches between the active and inactive forms
136
Q

MAPKKK pathway

A

Ras stimulates MAPKKK which gets phosphorylated to MAPKK which gets phosphorylated to MAPK which phosphorylates other protein kinases, transcription factors, and cellular proteins

137
Q

Serine/Threonine Kinase Receptor

A
  1. ligand binds to the type I TGF-Beta receptor
  2. The bound receptor dimerizes with the Type II receptor
  3. The type II receptor phosphorylates the type I receptor, activating it
  4. The activated receptor phosphorylates a SMAD Protein
  5. The activated SMADs enter the nucleus and regulate gene expression
138
Q

G-Protein Coupled Receptors

A
  1. Ligand binds to a Gs-protein-coupled receptor, causing a conformational change
  2. The As subunit releases GDP, bind to GTP, moves through the membrane, and activates adenylate cyclase
  3. Activated adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP
  4. cAMP binds to the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (PKA), which dissociates from the catalytic subunit, activating it
  5. The activated catalytic subunit phosphorylates proteins, causing a response
  6. The phosphorylated proteins are rapidly phosphorylated by serine/threonine phosphatases, terminating the response
  7. When ligand binds to a Gi-protein-coupled receptor, the ai subunit inhibits adenylate cyclase, inhibiting the signal transduction pathway
139
Q

Classical endocrine glands

A

pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, testis

140
Q

What pituitary gland is the hypothalamus directly attached to

A

Posterior

141
Q

Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis

A

Hypothalamus synthesizes and secretes neurohormones -> hypothalamic-pituitary portal system -> anterior pituitary releases hormones

142
Q

Tropic hormones

A

hormones which target other endocrine glands and cause the release of other hormones

143
Q

Gigantism

A

increased GH early in life

144
Q

Acromegaly

A

increased GH later in life

145
Q

GH deficient

A

short stature or dwarfism

146
Q

Growth hormone receptor insensitivity

A

dwarfism

147
Q

Role of oxytocin and prolactin in human milk production

A

Prolactin stimulates milk synthesis, oxytocin causes milk release

148
Q

Type I Diabetes

A

loss of beta cells, little or no insulin is produced

149
Q

Type II diabetes

A

Characterized by insulin receptors become resistant to insulin, insulin levels may be normal or high

150
Q

Medulla

A

produces catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

151
Q

Cortex

A

corticosteroids (glucocorticoids-cortisol, mineralocorticoids-aldosterone, androgens and estrogens)

152
Q

Adrenal Steroid Hormones

A

All steroids begin as cholesterol, cholesterol is converted into pregnenolone and progesterone, pregnenolone and progesterone can be converted into the androgens such as testosterone

153
Q

Stress endocrine response (HPA)

A

H- secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
P- Secretes ACTH
A- Adrenal cortex- Secretes cortisol, Stimulates target cells to increase blood glucose level, Inhibits cytokines, Increases proteolysis and lipolysis

154
Q

What kind of relationship do insulin and glucagon have

A

Antagonistic

BIO 225 (4 decks)

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