Exam 2 Flashcards
What is encoding?
Process involves initial formation of a memory code
Three types of encoding
• Structural - physical structure (e.g., how a word looks)
• Phonemic – sounds (e.g., how a word sounds)
• Semantic – meaning (e.g., what the word means)
Type of encoding results in the deepest level of processing
Semantic encoding
What is the basic idea of dual coding theory?
memory is enhanced by
forming coinciding semantic and visual codes
What is storage?
maintaining encoded information in memory over time
Sensory memory
preserves
information in its original
sensory form for a brief time
Short-term memory
limited-capacity store that can
maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds
Rehearsal
repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about
information
Chunking
grouping stimuli into meaningful chunks (e.g.,
grouping similar stimuli as a single unit)
Long-term memory
Unlimited capacity store that can
hold information over lengthy periods of time
Flashbulb memories
unusually vivid and detailed
recollections of the circumstances in which one learned of
momentous public events
Declarative memory
handles factual information
Non-declarative (procedural) memory
houses memory for actions,
skills, conditioned responses and emotional memories
• Ex: Remembering how to ride a bike or tie your shoes
Schema
organized cluster of knowledge about a particular
object or event abstracted from previous experience with the
object or event
Semantic networks
nodes
representing concepts, joined
together by pathways that
link related concepts
How many items does recent research suggest we can store in our short-term memory?
Research suggests that we can store 4 ± 1 (between
3 and 5) items in our short-term memory without
rehearsal.
We often refer to short-term memory as short-term _________ memory. This is because researchers have discovered that we can store and _____________ information in short-term memory.
Working and manipulate
Name and define the four components of working memory.
- Central executive system –
controls deployment of
attention.
• Phonological loop – allows
us to temporarily hold verbal
information; rehearsal
• Visuospatial sketchpad –
allows us to temporarily hold
and manipulate visual images
• Episodic buffer – allows the
components to integrate
information
What is retrieval?
recovering information from memory stores
Retrieval cues –
stimuli that help us gain access to memories
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – temporary
temporary inability
to remember
something you
know
Define retention –
The proportion of material retained (remembered)
Name, describe, and identify examples of three methods for measuring retention –
-Recall measure – Requires one to reproduce information on their own
without any cues
• Recognition measure – Requires one to select previously learned
information from an array of options
• Relearning measure – Requires one to memorize information a
second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having
learned it before
Retrieval failure
forgetting may be due to breakdowns in the
process of retrieval
Motivated forgetting
idea that people can block out , forget upsetting or traumatic memories because there is motivation to do so
Decay theory
forgetting occurs because memory traces fade
with time
Interference theory
people forget information because of
competition from other material
Ineffective encoding –
people forget when information is not
properly encoded (often attributable to lack of attention)
Know the difference between:
Retrospective and prospective memory
-Retrospective memory - involves remembering events from
the past or previously learned information
• Prospective memory - involves remembering to perform
actions in the future
Proactive and retroactive interference
Proactive interference – Old information interferes with the
retention of new information
• Ex: Calling your new partner by your old partner’s name.
Retroactive interference – New information impairs the
retention of old information
• Ex: Getting a new phone number and forgetting your old phone
number.
Retrograde and anterograde amnesia
-Loss of memories
for events that
occurred prior to
a head injury
-Loss of memories
for events that
occur after a
head injury
Define cognition
mental processes involved in acquiring
knowledge and understanding through thought, experience,
and the senses.
Define and be able to differentiate between:
Problems of inducing structure
-Problem solving - active efforts to discover what must be
done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable
-Problems of inducing structure – problems in which a person must discover the relations among the parts of the problem in order to solve it
Problems of arrangement
problem in which a person must
arrange parts in a way that satisfies some criterion.
Problems of transformation
Problem in which a person
must carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach
a specific goal.
What is the incubation effect?
new solutions tend to surface for a previously
unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about
the problem.
Be able to identify examples of the four barriers to problem solving that we discussed in class
-Trial and Error – trying possible solutions sequentially and
discarding those that are in error until one works.
• Subgoals – dividing a problem into intermediate steps toward a
solution.
• Analogies – similarities between problems allow us to apply
effective solutions that have been used in the past.
• Incubation - new solutions tend to surface for a previously
unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about
the problem.
Availability heuristic
involves basing the estimated
probability of an event on the ease with which relevant
instances come to mind.
Representativeness heuristic
involves basing the estimated
probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical
prototype of that event.
Identify and define the two primary forms of intelligence proposed by the Cattel-Horn-Carroll Theory of Intelligence
-Crystallized intelligence - knowledge that comes from
prior learning and past experiences
-Fluid Intelligence - being able to think and reason
abstractly and solve problems
Know what IQ stands for
Intelligence quotient
How is a normal distribution shaped?
How is a normal distribution shaped?
• Standard score – locates test-
takers precisely within a normal
distribution (Mean = 100)
• Standard deviation - statistical
index of variability in a data
distribution
• Percentile rank - percentage of
people who score at or below
the score one has obtained
What does a percentile rank indicate?
percentage of
people who score at or below
the score one has obtained
What is the difference between reliability and validity? Are intelligence tests reliable and valid?
• Reliability – the measurement consistency of a test; a reliable
test yields similar scores when repeated.
• IQ tests are exceptionally reliable (~.90)
• Validity – the ability of the test to measure what it was
designed to measure
• IQ tests tend to be valid measures of the intelligence
necessary to do academic work (but not of other types of
intelligence).
Define reaction range
a genetically determined range within which
one’s IQ is likely to land
Maturation
development
that reflects the unfolding
of one’s genetic blueprint
Developmental norms
typical age at which
individuals display various
behaviors and abilities
Know the three stages of prenatal development and the order in which they occur
- Germinal–first two weeks after conception; zygote implants
itself in uterine wall and placenta forms - Embryonic – occurs from week two until the end of the
second month; Most vital organs and bodily systems begin
to form - Fetal – lasts from two months to birth; rapid bodily growth
Secure
play and explore
with primary
caregiver present
become upset when
they leave
are quickly calmed
by their return
Anxious-ambivalent
are anxious even
when primary
caregivers are near
protest when they
leave
are not comforted
when they return
Avoidant
seek little contact
with their primary
caregivers
often are not
distressed when
they leave
avoid contact when
caregivers return
Disorganized
do not consistently
display any of the
other three
attachment types
tend to fluctuate
between anxious-
ambivalent and
avoidant
Differentiate between nativist, behaviorist, and interactionist theories of language development
• Behaviorist theories – humans learn language through
conditioning and observational learning
• Nativist theories – humans are biologically programmed to
produce language
• Interactionist theories – language acquisition is a result of
biological programming and interaction with one’s social
environment
Fast mapping define and identify examples
the term used for the hypothesized mental process whereby a new concept is learned (or a new hypothesis formed) based only on minimal exposure to a given unit of information (e.g., one exposure to a word in an informative context where its referent is present
Overextension define and identify examples
Overextension occurs when a child uses a single word to refer to multiple objects or concepts, instead of using different words for different things. For example, a toddler may use the word “dog” to refer to all four-legged animals, including cats, pigs, and cows.
Under extension define and identify examples
occurs when a child acquires a word for a particular thing and fails to extend it to other objects in the same category, using the word in a highly restricted and individualistic way.
Telegraphic speech define and identify examples
speech that consists mainly of content words (i.e., articles, prepositions) and omits less critical words
Over-regularization define and identify examples
a part of the language-learning process in which children extend regular grammatical patterns to irregular words, such as the use of “goed “ for “went”, or “tooths” for “teeth”.
What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?
- Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
- Preoperational (2-7 years)
- Concrete Operational (7-11 years)
- Formal Operations (11+ years)
Object permanence define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with
recognition that an object
continues to exist even when
it is no longer visible (0-2 years )
Conservation define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with
Awareness that
physical quantities remain constant (2-7 years)
Concentration define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with
Ability to focus on just
one feature (7-11)
Irreversibility define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with
Inability to envision
reversing and action
Pre-operational (2-7)
Egocentrism define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with
Limited ability to share
another person’s point of view
Pre operational (2-7)
Animism define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with
Belief that all things are
living
Pre operational (2-7)
What does the linguistic relativity hypothesis suggest?
one’s language determines
the nature of one’s thought.
What does Erikson believe influences personality?
Outcomes of stages
influence aspects of
personality.
What are Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development?
Changes in which area of the brain are associated with risk-taking in adolescence?
Synaptic pruning - Elimination of unused synapses
• Increased ability to learn new things
• Increased risk-taking
Imaginary audience
adolescents’ tendency to believe that
others are always watching and evaluating them
Personal fable
belief that the self is special and unique, so
much so that none of life’s difficulties or problems will affect
them regardless of their behavior
Which of psychosocial crisis do adolescents face, according to Erikson?
According to Erikson, the psychosocial crisis that adolescents
face is Identity vs Confusion.
Identify and differentiate between Marcia’s four identity statuses
• Identity moratorium – active
struggling for a sense of identity
• Identity foreclosure –
unquestioning adoption of parental or societal values
• Identity diffusion – absence of or
struggle for identity, with no obvious concern about it
• Identity achievement – successful
achievement of a sense of identity
What age range do we consider to be “emerging adulthood”?
stage
between adolescence and
adulthood (18-25 years)
What psychosocial crisis do young adults face according to Erikson?
Does anxiety about death tend to increase or decrease with age?
Anxiety about death tends to
be high in early adulthood,
but decreases in late
adulthood
