Exam 2 Flashcards
physiological response
a short-term change in response to environmental change such as buoyancy change
adaptive response
often reversible response to an environmental change that has evolved to increase fitness
environmental change
the variation of environmental factors such as temperature or salinity that can effect an organism
receptor
what sense the change in environment in organisms such as antennae, tentacles, or protein systems
transfer system
nervous connections to muscle systems- endocrine system
fitness
the ability an organism has to survive and reproduce in its environment
types of adaptive responses
behavioral
gene regulation- gene pathways
biochemical-change in conc of enzymes
physiological-systemic level
acclimation
response to an environmental change by establishing a new equilibrium
regulation
maintenance of constancy despite environmental change
conformance
internal state changes to match external environmental change
measures of performance
-growth
-activity
-endurance of activity
-circulation/heartbeat
scope for growth
excess energy beyond what is needed for maintenance available to be used for growth
effects of temperature on organisms
latitudinal distribution of species based on temperature
homeothermy
regulators-keep body temp at a constant high level, yet lose heat to surrounding environment
poikilothermy
conformers-body temp conforms to surrounding environment, fetlock metabolic effiiciency
adaptations that reduce heat loss
insulation (blubber), countercurrent heat exchange
countercurrent heat exchange
two currents of fluids circulating in opposite directions inside closely associated and parallel structures. The warmest fluid loses heat by conduction transferring it to the coolest one
effects of heat shock
high physiological stress that can cause a decrease in population or difference in growth
heat shock proteins
formed during heat stress, prevents proteins from unfolding
ubiquitin
a low molecular weight protein that binds to degraded proteins which are then digested by intracellular proteolytic enzymes (garbage disposal system for denatured proteins)
disruption of membranes
caused by heat shock, disrupts the packing of phospholipids, which disrupts transportation through membrane of ions
how seasonal temperature extremes affects activity and reproduction
different based on latitudinal range of the species
adaptations to prevent freezing
glycoproteins and glycopeptides- act as an antifreeze at very low levels by binding to ice crystals and preventing growth
salinity effects on organisms
can create osmotic pressure or uncontrolled ion concentration within cells creating stress on organisms, change their behavior, limit reproduction
osmosis and diffusion
osmosis- movement of pure water across a semipermeable membrane from high conc to low conc
diffusion- movement of dissolved solutes across a membrane
osmotic pressure
pulling of water molecules to ares of higher concentration, expanding higher salinity cells creating pressure and stress on cell
ion regulation
cells exchange ions through channels between cells and circulatory system
best accomplished when body is isolated from seawater ex. crab carapace fish skin
cell volume regulation
osmolytes- organic substitutes for inorganic molecules, allows for regulation of cell volume and concentration of inorganic ions
ex. free amino acids in hagfish, urea in sharks, glycerol and sucrose in seaweed
oxygen as a requirement
increases efficiency in production of ATP-energy source in cells
limitation of oxygen in aquatic. environments
areas of low oxygen:
-low tide(intertidal animals)
-within sediment
-oxygen minimum layers in water column where organic matter collects
-seasonal oxygen changes as in estuaries
oxygen uptake
uptake, circulates through body, spread to tissue
oxygen consumption and metabolic rate
oxygen increases with activity rate, direct correlation with metabolic rate
oxygen uptake mechanisms
diffusion-orgs a few mm thick
feathery gills-high surface area to uptake more oxygen
lungs-mammals, enormous surface area
blood pigments
substances that greatly increase blood capacity for transporting oxygen
ex. hemocyanin, hemoglobin
Bohr effect
how acidity of blood affects releasing of oxygen from hemoglobin. when blood is more acidic (more CO2), makes it easier for hemoglobin to release oxygen and vice versa
density of fluids
density is equal to mass/volume
dynamic viscosity of fluid
molecular stickiness, decreases with increasing temp
Reynolds number
a measure of the relative importance inertial and viscous effects of a fluid on objects within fluid
increases with increasing velocity and size
relationship between Reynolds number and swimming velocity
implications of Reynolds number for organisms
> 1000, inertial forces are predominate
<1, viscous forces are predominante
viscous versus inertial forces
viscous- stickiness within fluid/internal friction
inertial-outside forces due to mass and acceleration of the fluid
laminar and turbulent flow
laminar-smooth flow in a straight line without mixing into the fluid
turbulent-irregular overall direction and chaotic
water movement of surfaces
flows at a “mainstream velocity’
no slip condition
water velocity will decrease to zero at the bottom surface
principle of continuity
the volume of fluid entered must equal the volume of fluid exited, so velocity of a fluid inside a pipe is inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe
Bernoullis Principle
pressure varies inversely with the velocity of fluid, allowing pressure gradients to be made
Principle of continuity affect on marine organisms
choanocytes in sponges created water flow to filter feed
Bernoullis affect on marine organisms
flat fish shape: upper surface is curved while lower surface is flat creating greater pressure on the lower surface and causing lift
drag
water moving past an object creates drag, a force that operates differently at different Reynolds numbers
pressure drag
the change in pressure upstream vs downstream of an object in water more seen in high Re
skin friction
more important at lower Re, a force resulting from the interlayer stickiness (dynamic viscosity)
solutions to friction drag
mucus layer, riblets in sharks, flabby skin on dolphins, shape-sphere over cylinder
drag and fish form
less drag in slim fish=laminar flow, fast, yet unable to create quick turns
disk shaped fish=turbulent flow, increased pressure drag slows it down, yet can turn quickly
adaptations of sessile organisms to tolerate drag
-flexibility to bend with current
-growing into the current
-strengthen body (crossweave in seaweed)
asexual reproduction
descendants are genetically identical-clones
modular growth
comprise a module, each module may have arisen from sexually formed zygote. identical clones
sexual reproduction
reproduction through the fusion of haploid female and male gametes
costs and benefits of sexual reproduction
-female has to give up all energy on reproduction and finding a male mate
-creates genetic diversity to help fight disease, crossing over helps variable gene combinations
natural selection
evolution of new traits that increase performance of fitness
sexual selection
traits that increase mating success, what females look for in males
types of sexuality
gonochoristic or hermaphroditism
hermaphroditism
having both sexual functions of a male and female either sequential or simultaneous
simultaneous hermaphrodite
reproductive organs of both sexes are present simultaneously, not necessarily used at same time
sequential hermaphrodite
first one sex then switches to another
protandry
male then female, seen in oysters and clams-size threshold
protogyny
first female then male, ex. red grouper
size advantage model for protandry
once female gets to a large enough size to fight and become aggressive, it will become a male to function more efficiently
male polymorphism
can either occur as aggressive and fighting or non aggressive
non aggressive use sneaky tactics to get females
found in some fish, amphipod or isopod crustaceans
eusociality
collective society of individuals who work together and raise young as a group. snapping shrimp are only marine org to do so, also naked mole rat
fertilization
when sperm from male meets with female egg to create a zygote
planktonic sperm
use free spawning by releasing sperm directly into water and hoping it enters a nearby female. problem of timing
direct sperm transfer
guarantee of fertilization, yet struggle to find a mate
gamete matching
necessary for reproduction to occur, gametes from male and female must bind together before becoming a zygote
bindin
protein in urchins who’s job is to bind easier to egg cell membrane
lysin
protein in mollusk sperm- creates hole in egg envelope to allow sperm to fuse with egg
epidemic spawning
seen in mussels, the releasing of one individuals stimulus creates all other individuals to release theirs “trendy”
mass spawning
seen in coral species, many species spawn on a single night
timing of spawning
seen in spores in seaweed, waits for quiet times such as low tide to maximize fertilization rates
life history theory
tactics that maximize population growth in a species dependent on the surrounding environment
-variation in reproductive effort
-age of first reproduction
-whether to reproduce more than once
semelparity
reproducing only once in a lifetime
iteroparity
reproducing multiple times within a life time
dispersal
undirected movement of populations
migration
directed movement between specific sites for specific reasons
diadromous
organisms who move between estuaries and the open sea
anadromous
fish who spawn in freshwater but live as adults in salt water- more common in higher altitudes ex. striped bass, sea lamprey
catadromous
fish who spawn in salt water but live as adults in fresh water, more common in lower altitudes ex. eel
fully oceanic
organisms that only live in saltwater for the entirety of their life ex. sea turtle, whales
direct release
females lay eggs or brood and juveniles crawl/swim away on their own
planktotropic dispersal
female produces many small eggs, larvae feed on plankton, long dispersal time(weeks), some are teleplanic
lectithrotropic larvae
females produce less eggs, larvae live on a yolk, less dispersal time (hrs-days)
selection of substratum by larvae
larval adaptations for retention
larvae raise on flooding tide, sink to bottom on ebbing tide, allows to move within estuary more and promote retention of larvae ex. mud crab
reasons for dispersal
local extinction- transport young to new sites
hedging bets- spread over habitat
plankton
organisms who live in the water column, too small to swim against currents
size classes of plankton
from viruses (<.2 mm) to jellyfish (>20cm)
viruses
femtoplankton- strands of DNA or RNA enclosed in a protein coat. very abundant, can affect and destroy phytoplankton
phytoplankton
autotrophic plankton, key part of fresh and marine water environments.
zooplankton
heterotrophic plankton community, consume others to thrive
mixoplankton
hototrophic phytoplankton and phagotrophic zooplankton, recent research shows many actually combine phototrophy and phagotrophy in the one cell
holoplankton
organisms that are planktic for their entire life cycle.
meroplankton
lanktic organisms that spend part of their life cycle in the benthic zone.
diatoms
can occur singular or chained, denser than seawater but don’t swim, size nano-micro plankton, radially symmetrical, binary fission, doubles ones or twice per day
diatom life cycle
two halves of silica shell-keeps reproducing smaller than before(asexually)-when too small begins sexual reproduction and zygote grows to full size before splitting again.
dinoflagellates
can swim with two flagella, nano to micro plankton, asexual and sexual reproduction,heterotrophic, abundant in tropics, mid latitudes in summer.
brevitoxin
less toxic but interferes with sodium transport, responsible for most red tides in gulf near Florida
saxitoxin
potent toxin that is harmful when humans eat shellfish who have eaten this algae bloom
red tides
harmful algae bloom overproduction that harms organisms
cyanobacteria
blue green, nitrogen fixation, about 1nanometer, abundant in tropical ocean
nitrogen fixation
takes nitrogen from atmosphere and makes it into a form of nitrogen that can be used for many biochemical processes
heterocyst
nitrogen fixing cells within cyanobacteria
coccolithophores
unicellular, nano-micro plankton, spherical and covered with calcium, turns carbon from atmosphere into calcium and sinks to ocean floor
silicoflagellates
unicellular, biflagellate, internal silica skeleton, common in antarctic and open ocean
diversity
numerous groups of phytoplankton that cause major blooms
differential nutrient requirements
all phytoplankton have different needs, Fe, Si, Ca, P, N, heterotrophy
crustacean zooplankton (arthropods)
external chitin skeleton, segmentation, paired joints/appendages, naupiler or compound eyes
copepods
largest group of crustaceans in zooplankton, micro plankton, long antennae, swim with 5 pairs off appendages, medial napiler eye, feed on phytoplankton or smaller zooplankton
maxilliped structure
small secondary appendages that are necessary for crustacean feeding
copepod feeding
create current with legs, maxilliped pulls food into mouth
krill
up to 5cm, abundant in antarctic and upwelling regions, main food for baleen whales
krill feeding mechanism
group of appendages form a basket, appendages have small hairs that catch food particles
gelatinous zooplankton
jellies have a wide variety of distant related groups, all have gelatinous material or hydrostatic skeleton
cnidaria
gelatinous zooplankton, mainly carnivores, use nemaocysts or tentacles to sting, colonial species
hydrozoa
by the wind sailor, colonial
scyphozoa
muscular bell and tentacles
siphonophores
colonial, very abundant in ocean, polymorphic
nematocysts
specialized cell in tentacles that are barbed or venomous to be used in self defense or prey hunting
ctenophores (comb jellies)
micro carnivores, 8 rows of meridional plates, two long tentacles, flashing light and bioluminescence
meridional plates
external rows lines with cilia to trap prey and move to its mouth
newton rings
a phenomenon in which an interference pattern is created by the reflection of light between two surfaces; a spherical surface and an adjacent touching flat surface.
luciferin-luciferase
enzymes that produce bioluminescence through photoproteins
salps
have in current and exit current siphons at opposite ends of its body, solitary or colonial, up to 2m long
larvaceans
have a tail, only a few mm long, tail generates current that trap food in its mucus mesh and flows into mouth
arrow worms
torpedo shaped, few mm long, rapid swimmers, carnivorous
pteropods (sea butterfly)
holoplanktonic snails in danger to acidification due to calcium shell, swim by lateral projection of foot, suspension feed or carnivorous
polychaetes
have a very well developed parapodia
parapodia
small feet on worms used for swimming
foraminifera
secrete skeleton chambers of calcium carbonate, common in plankton, couple mm, foram ooze, trap food particles
radiolaria
silica skeleton, similar to foraminifera, also secretes ooze but deeper
ciliata
covered in cilia, shorter but very common
