Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Cancer
A
Cells that divide when they should not, and have the ability to invade surrounding tissue and spread elsewhere
2
Q
Cell Division
A
Process a cell undergoes when it makes copies of itself. Production of daughter cells from an original parent cell
3
Q
Tumor
A
Mass of tissue that has no apparent function in the body
4
Q
Benign
A
The type of tumor that stays in one place and does not affect surrounding tissues
5
Q
Malignant
A
Describes a tumor that is cancerous, whether it is invasive or metastatic
6
Q
Metastasis
A
When cells from a tumor break away and start new cancers at distant locations
7
Q
Carcinogens
A
Substance that causes cancer or increases the rate of its development
8
Q
DNA
A
Molecule of heredity that stores the information required for making all of the proteins required by the cell
9
Q
Chromosomes
A
Subcellular structure composed of a long single molecule of DNA and associated proteins, housed inside the nucleus
10
Q
Sister Chromatids
A
Either of the two duplicated, identical copies of a chromosome formed after DNA synthesis
11
Q
Centromere
A
Region of a chromosome where sister chromatids are attached and to which microtubules bind
12
Q
DNA Replication
A
The synthesis of two daughter DNA molecules from one original parent molecule
13
Q
Mitosis
A
The division of the nucleus (that produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell)
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
14
Q
Cell Cycle
A
Life cycle of the cell
15
Q
Interphase
A
The period of normal cell functioning; Preparation for division
16
Q
Prophase
A
Stage of mitosis during which duplicated chromosomes condense
17
Q
Metaphase
A
Stage of mitosis during which duplicated chromosomes align across the middle of the cell
18
Q
Anaphase
A
Stage of mitosis during which microtubules contract and separate sister chromatids
19
Q
Telophase
A
Stage of mitosis during which the nuclear envelope forms around the newly produced daughter nucleus, and chromosomes decondense
20
Q
Cytokinesis
A
The division of the cytoplasm; In a plant cell, a new cell wall forms
21
Q
Mutations
A
Change to a DNA sequence that may result in the production of altered proteins
22
Q
Proto-oncogenes
A
Regulate cell division
23
Q
Oncogenes
A
Mutated proto-oncogenes
24
Q
Tumor-suppressor genes
A
Suppress or stop cell division
25
Contact Inhibition
A process of arresting cell growth when cells come in contact with each other; A powerful anticancer mechanism that is lost in cancer cells
26
Anchorage Dependence
Cells that will grow, survive, or maintain function only when attached to an inert surface such as glass or plastic; also known as substrate-dependent cells
27
Biopsy
Surgical removal of some cells, tissue, or fluid to determine whether cells are cancerous
28
Chemotherapy
The use of chemicals to try to kill rapidly dividing (cancerous) cells
29
Radiation
Energy released in the form of particle or electromagnetic waves; Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high doses of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors
30
Meiosis
Cell division for sexual reproduction
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
31
Gametes
Specialized sex cell (sperm and egg in humans) that contains half as many chromosomes as other body cells and is therefore haploid
32
Somatic Cells
Any of the body cells in an organism. Any cell that is not a gamete
33
Karyotype
A karyotype is an individual's complete set of chromosomes; The term also refers to a laboratory-produced image of a person's chromosomes isolated from an individual cell and arranged in numerical order
34
Autosomes
Any chromosome not involved in sex determination. Chromosomes 1–22 are autosomes. The X and Y chromosomes are not
35
Sex Chromosomes
Any of the sex-determining chromosomes (X and Y in humans)
36
Homologous Chromosomes
A pair of matching chromosomes in an organism, with one being inherited from each parent
37
Haploid
A cell containing half the normal number of chromosomes (23)
38
Diploid
A cell containing a full set of chromosomes (46)
39
Zygote
Single cell resulting from the fusion of gametes (egg and sperm)
40
Crossing Over
Gene for gene exchange of genetic information between members of a homologous pair of chromosomes
41
Random Alignment
The process that occurs during meiosis where chromosomes will independently separate from each other, creating genetic variation
42
Nondisjunction
Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis
43
Down Syndrome
A genetic condition caused by having an extra chromosome 21 in some or all of the body's cells
44
Turner Syndrome
Turner syndrome is a female-only genetic disorder. A girl with Turner syndrome only has 1 normal X sex chromosome, rather than the usual 2
45
Kleinfelter Syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome is where boys are born with an extra X chromosome
46
Trait
Any aspect or characteristic of an individual
47
Genes
Trait-bearing units or factors on chromosomes; composed of DNA
48
Genotype
The genetic make-up of an individual
49
Phenotype
The physical appearance of an individual
50
Allele
Alternate expressions of a gene
51
Homozygous
When both alleles are the same
52
Heterozygous
When there are two different alleles
53
Dominant
An allele that will be expressed over recessive alleles
54
Recessive
An allele that will be expressed only when no dominant alleles are present
55
Wild Type
Traits found most commonly in nature
56
Carrier
Heterozygous for a recessive trait
57
Genetic Variation
Differences in alleles that exist among individuals in a population
58
Independent Assortment
The separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes into gametes independently of one another during meiosis
59
Random Fertilization
The unpredictability of exactly which gametes will fuse during the process of sexual reproduction
60
Homologous Pair
Homologous pairs of chromosomes carry the same genes in the same locations but may carry different alleles
61
Identical (Monozygotic) Twins
Identical twins that developed from one zygote
62
Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins
Fraternal twins (nonidentical) that develop when two different sperm fertilize two different egg cells
63
Punnett Square
Table that lists the different kinds of sperm or eggs parents can produce relative to the gene or genes in question and predicts the possible outcomes of a cross between these parents
64
Quantitative Trait
Trait that has many possible values
65
Heritability
A measure of how well differences in people's genes account for differences in their traits
66
Polygenic Trait
A trait influenced by many genes
67
Epigenetics
The study of how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work
68
Incomplete Dominance
A type of inheritance where the heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate to both homozygotes
69
Codominance
Two different alleles of a gene that are equally expressed in the heterozygote
70
Multiple Alleles
A gene for which there are more than two alleles in the population
71
Pleiotropy
The ability of one gene to affect many different functions
72
Sex Determination
Determining the biological sex of an offspring. Humans have a chromosomal mechanism of sex determination in which two X chromosomes produce a female and an X and a Y chromosome produce a male
73
Sex-Linked Genes
Characteristics (or traits) that are influenced by genes carried on the sex chromosomes
74
X-Linked Genes
Any of the genes located on the X chromosome
75
Y-Linked Genes
Any of the genes located on the Y chromosome
76
Pedigree
Family tree that follows the inheritance of a genetic trait for many generations
77
DNA Fingerprinting
The analysis of DNA fragments to determine if they come from a particular individual; Used in criminal cases, paternity cases, etc
78
Recombinant Bovine Growth Hormone (rBGH)
Growth hormone produced in a laboratory and injected into cows to increase their size and ability to produce milk
79
RNA
Information-carrying molecule composed of nucleotides
80
Transcription
A gene on a DNA molecule is transcribed into RNA; Takes place in the nucleus
81
Translation
The production of proteins from the RNA transcript
82
Codon
A triplet of RNA nucleotides. Transfer RNA molecules bind to codons during protein synthesis
83
Genetic Code
Table showing which mRNA codons code for which amino acids
84
Gene Expression
Turning a gene on or off. A gene is expressed when the protein it encodes is synthesized
85
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
Organisms whose genome incorporates genes from another organism; also called transgenic or genetically engineered organisms
86
Gene Therapy
Replacing defective genes (or their protein products) with functional ones; Mostly confined to blood disorders
87
Cloning
Producing copies of a gene or an organism that are genetically identical
88
Substitution Mutation
A type of mutation in which a single nucleotide is substituted with a different nucleotide
89
Stem Cells
Cells that can divide indefinitely and can differentiate into other cell types
90
Mutation
Change to a DNA sequence that may result in the production of altered proteins
91
Adult Stem Cells
Cells in adult tissues that can give rise to only a few related types of specialized cells; Typically found in bone marrow/blood cells
92
Embryonic Stem Cells
Cells derived from an early stage of an embryo that have potential to become any cell type in the body; Typically come from IVF, cloning is a future possibility
93
Frameshift Mutation
A mutation that occurs when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted from a DNA sequence is not a multiple of three
94
What are the risk factors for cancer?
Tobacco use (causes 1/3 of cancer deaths)
High fat, low-fiber diet
Lack of exercise
Excess alcohol consumption
Increasing age
Sun exposure
Inheritance
Viruses
95
What are the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis?
Mitosis:
has 4 stages + Interphase
produces 2 diploid daughter cells
is for cellular proliferation
does not increase genetic variation
Meiosis:
has 8 phases + Interphase
produces 4 haploid daughter cells
is for sexual reproduction
increases genetic variation
96
Mendelian Genetics
When the role of genes is clear in inheritance
97
What are the options for cancer treatment?
Chemotherapy
Radiation
Surgery
98
Quantitative Genetics
When multiple genes and/or the environment interact
99
Through what systems does cancer spread?
The lymphatic and circulatory systems
100
Why do cells divide by mitosis?
Growth
Repair
Maintanence
Asexual reproduction
101
What is the main advantage of obtaining stem cells from a cloned embryo?
They would be a perfect match to the patient and not be rejected if used in the patient
