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General Biology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cancer

A

Cells that divide when they should not, and have the ability to invade surrounding tissue and spread elsewhere

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2
Q

Cell Division

A

Process a cell undergoes when it makes copies of itself. Production of daughter cells from an original parent cell

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3
Q

Tumor

A

Mass of tissue that has no apparent function in the body

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4
Q

Benign

A

The type of tumor that stays in one place and does not affect surrounding tissues

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5
Q

Malignant

A

Describes a tumor that is cancerous, whether it is invasive or metastatic

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6
Q

Metastasis

A

When cells from a tumor break away and start new cancers at distant locations

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7
Q

Carcinogens

A

Substance that causes cancer or increases the rate of its development

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8
Q

DNA

A

Molecule of heredity that stores the information required for making all of the proteins required by the cell

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9
Q

Chromosomes

A

Subcellular structure composed of a long single molecule of DNA and associated proteins, housed inside the nucleus

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10
Q

Sister Chromatids

A

Either of the two duplicated, identical copies of a chromosome formed after DNA synthesis

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11
Q

Centromere

A

Region of a chromosome where sister chromatids are attached and to which microtubules bind

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12
Q

DNA Replication

A

The synthesis of two daughter DNA molecules from one original parent molecule

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13
Q

Mitosis

A

The division of the nucleus (that produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell)

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

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14
Q

Cell Cycle

A

Life cycle of the cell

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15
Q

Interphase

A

The period of normal cell functioning; Preparation for division

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16
Q

Prophase

A

Stage of mitosis during which duplicated chromosomes condense

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17
Q

Metaphase

A

Stage of mitosis during which duplicated chromosomes align across the middle of the cell

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18
Q

Anaphase

A

Stage of mitosis during which microtubules contract and separate sister chromatids

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19
Q

Telophase

A

Stage of mitosis during which the nuclear envelope forms around the newly produced daughter nucleus, and chromosomes decondense

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20
Q

Cytokinesis

A

The division of the cytoplasm; In a plant cell, a new cell wall forms

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21
Q

Mutations

A

Change to a DNA sequence that may result in the production of altered proteins

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22
Q

Proto-oncogenes

A

Regulate cell division

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23
Q

Oncogenes

A

Mutated proto-oncogenes

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24
Q

Tumor-suppressor genes

A

Suppress or stop cell division

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25
Q

Contact Inhibition

A

A process of arresting cell growth when cells come in contact with each other; A powerful anticancer mechanism that is lost in cancer cells

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26
Q

Anchorage Dependence

A

Cells that will grow, survive, or maintain function only when attached to an inert surface such as glass or plastic; also known as substrate-dependent cells

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27
Q

Biopsy

A

Surgical removal of some cells, tissue, or fluid to determine whether cells are cancerous

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28
Q

Chemotherapy

A

The use of chemicals to try to kill rapidly dividing (cancerous) cells

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29
Q

Radiation

A

Energy released in the form of particle or electromagnetic waves; Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high doses of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors

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30
Q

Meiosis

A

Cell division for sexual reproduction

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

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31
Q

Gametes

A

Specialized sex cell (sperm and egg in humans) that contains half as many chromosomes as other body cells and is therefore haploid

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32
Q

Somatic Cells

A

Any of the body cells in an organism. Any cell that is not a gamete

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33
Q

Karyotype

A

A karyotype is an individual’s complete set of chromosomes; The term also refers to a laboratory-produced image of a person’s chromosomes isolated from an individual cell and arranged in numerical order

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34
Q

Autosomes

A

Any chromosome not involved in sex determination. Chromosomes 1–22 are autosomes. The X and Y chromosomes are not

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35
Q

Sex Chromosomes

A

Any of the sex-determining chromosomes (X and Y in humans)

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36
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

A pair of matching chromosomes in an organism, with one being inherited from each parent

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37
Q

Haploid

A

A cell containing half the normal number of chromosomes (23)

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38
Q

Diploid

A

A cell containing a full set of chromosomes (46)

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39
Q

Zygote

A

Single cell resulting from the fusion of gametes (egg and sperm)

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40
Q

Crossing Over

A

Gene for gene exchange of genetic information between members of a homologous pair of chromosomes

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41
Q

Random Alignment

A

The process that occurs during meiosis where chromosomes will independently separate from each other, creating genetic variation

42
Q

Nondisjunction

A

Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis

43
Q

Down Syndrome

A

A genetic condition caused by having an extra chromosome 21 in some or all of the body’s cells

44
Q

Turner Syndrome

A

Turner syndrome is a female-only genetic disorder. A girl with Turner syndrome only has 1 normal X sex chromosome, rather than the usual 2

45
Q

Kleinfelter Syndrome

A

Klinefelter syndrome is where boys are born with an extra X chromosome

46
Q

Trait

A

Any aspect or characteristic of an individual

47
Q

Genes

A

Trait-bearing units or factors on chromosomes; composed of DNA

48
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic make-up of an individual

49
Q

Phenotype

A

The physical appearance of an individual

50
Q

Allele

A

Alternate expressions of a gene

51
Q

Homozygous

A

When both alleles are the same

52
Q

Heterozygous

A

When there are two different alleles

53
Q

Dominant

A

An allele that will be expressed over recessive alleles

54
Q

Recessive

A

An allele that will be expressed only when no dominant alleles are present

55
Q

Wild Type

A

Traits found most commonly in nature

56
Q

Carrier

A

Heterozygous for a recessive trait

57
Q

Genetic Variation

A

Differences in alleles that exist among individuals in a population

58
Q

Independent Assortment

A

The separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes into gametes independently of one another during meiosis

59
Q

Random Fertilization

A

The unpredictability of exactly which gametes will fuse during the process of sexual reproduction

60
Q

Homologous Pair

A

Homologous pairs of chromosomes carry the same genes in the same locations but may carry different alleles

61
Q

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

A

Identical twins that developed from one zygote

62
Q

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

A

Fraternal twins (nonidentical) that develop when two different sperm fertilize two different egg cells

63
Q

Punnett Square

A

Table that lists the different kinds of sperm or eggs parents can produce relative to the gene or genes in question and predicts the possible outcomes of a cross between these parents

64
Q

Quantitative Trait

A

Trait that has many possible values

65
Q

Heritability

A

A measure of how well differences in people’s genes account for differences in their traits

66
Q

Polygenic Trait

A

A trait influenced by many genes

67
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work

68
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

A type of inheritance where the heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate to both homozygotes

69
Q

Codominance

A

Two different alleles of a gene that are equally expressed in the heterozygote

70
Q

Multiple Alleles

A

A gene for which there are more than two alleles in the population

71
Q

Pleiotropy

A

The ability of one gene to affect many different functions

72
Q

Sex Determination

A

Determining the biological sex of an offspring. Humans have a chromosomal mechanism of sex determination in which two X chromosomes produce a female and an X and a Y chromosome produce a male

73
Q

Sex-Linked Genes

A

Characteristics (or traits) that are influenced by genes carried on the sex chromosomes

74
Q

X-Linked Genes

A

Any of the genes located on the X chromosome

75
Q

Y-Linked Genes

A

Any of the genes located on the Y chromosome

76
Q

Pedigree

A

Family tree that follows the inheritance of a genetic trait for many generations

77
Q

DNA Fingerprinting

A

The analysis of DNA fragments to determine if they come from a particular individual; Used in criminal cases, paternity cases, etc

78
Q

Recombinant Bovine Growth Hormone (rBGH)

A

Growth hormone produced in a laboratory and injected into cows to increase their size and ability to produce milk

79
Q

RNA

A

Information-carrying molecule composed of nucleotides

80
Q

Transcription

A

A gene on a DNA molecule is transcribed into RNA; Takes place in the nucleus

81
Q

Translation

A

The production of proteins from the RNA transcript

82
Q

Codon

A

A triplet of RNA nucleotides. Transfer RNA molecules bind to codons during protein synthesis

83
Q

Genetic Code

A

Table showing which mRNA codons code for which amino acids

84
Q

Gene Expression

A

Turning a gene on or off. A gene is expressed when the protein it encodes is synthesized

85
Q

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)

A

Organisms whose genome incorporates genes from another organism; also called transgenic or genetically engineered organisms

86
Q

Gene Therapy

A

Replacing defective genes (or their protein products) with functional ones; Mostly confined to blood disorders

87
Q

Cloning

A

Producing copies of a gene or an organism that are genetically identical

88
Q

Substitution Mutation

A

A type of mutation in which a single nucleotide is substituted with a different nucleotide

89
Q

Stem Cells

A

Cells that can divide indefinitely and can differentiate into other cell types

90
Q

Mutation

A

Change to a DNA sequence that may result in the production of altered proteins

91
Q

Adult Stem Cells

A

Cells in adult tissues that can give rise to only a few related types of specialized cells; Typically found in bone marrow/blood cells

92
Q

Embryonic Stem Cells

A

Cells derived from an early stage of an embryo that have potential to become any cell type in the body; Typically come from IVF, cloning is a future possibility

93
Q

Frameshift Mutation

A

A mutation that occurs when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted from a DNA sequence is not a multiple of three

94
Q

What are the risk factors for cancer?

A

Tobacco use (causes 1/3 of cancer deaths)
High fat, low-fiber diet
Lack of exercise
Excess alcohol consumption
Increasing age
Sun exposure
Inheritance
Viruses

95
Q

What are the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis?

A

Mitosis:
has 4 stages + Interphase
produces 2 diploid daughter cells
is for cellular proliferation
does not increase genetic variation

Meiosis:
has 8 phases + Interphase
produces 4 haploid daughter cells
is for sexual reproduction
increases genetic variation

96
Q

Mendelian Genetics

A

When the role of genes is clear in inheritance

97
Q

What are the options for cancer treatment?

A

Chemotherapy
Radiation
Surgery

98
Q

Quantitative Genetics

A

When multiple genes and/or the environment interact

99
Q

Through what systems does cancer spread?

A

The lymphatic and circulatory systems

100
Q

Why do cells divide by mitosis?

A

Growth
Repair
Maintanence
Asexual reproduction

101
Q

What is the main advantage of obtaining stem cells from a cloned embryo?

A

They would be a perfect match to the patient and not be rejected if used in the patient

General Biology (6 decks)

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