exam 2 Flashcards
what is the difference between RNA and DNA
- ribose sugar
- RNA has ribonucleic acid; has an extra oxygen
- DNA has deoxygenated ribonucleic acid - T and U
- T is for DNA only (thymidine)
- U is for RNA only (uracyl) - strand
- RNA is a single strand
- DNA is a double strand
DNA structure and function
dna
- replication
- semiconservative
- dna polymerase
rna
- transcription
- messenger (mRNA)
- rna polymerase
- translation
Chromatin
DNA is protected by wrapping around histone proteins. these two together are called chromatin
euchromatin
- space in chromatin association; when genes are active (gene-rich)
- dispersed appearance
- unique DNA sequence
heterochromatin
- tightly coiled chromatin; inactive genes (gene-poor)
- condensed appearance
- repetitive DNA sequence
chromosome
- orange colored region indicated heterochromatin and are nonactive
- the blue parts are euchromatin and active
- there is telomeres on top and bottom and a centromere in the middle
dna sense to rna
A=U
C=G
G=C
T=A
letters B and C on video on canvas & tissues through connective
muscle tissue
- 3 types: skeletal, smooth, cardiac
muscle tissue function
shorten and produce movement
where are each of the types of muscle tissue
skeletal: attached to bone, cross a joint (where 2 bones meet)
smooth: found in walls of almost all organs
cardiac: found in heart
function of nervous tissue
rapidly transmit information
what are the two parts of nervous tissue
neurons and glia
neurons
electrically excited; gated channels
glia
not excitable; supports neurons; soak up extracellular K+
what are the 3 layers of the integumentary system
epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
epidermis function
barrier for water loss*
(immunity, water loss, UV radiation, Vitamin D) and excretion (water, urea)
layers of the epidermis
stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale
stratum basale cells
- melanocytes (melanin)
- keratinocytes (mitosis -> other layers; produce vitamin D - waterproofs the skin)
- merkels disks (touch receptors)
stratum spinosum cells
dendritic (immune system; prevents infection)
stratum granulosum
keratin is activated in this layer; waterproof
stratum lucidum
thick skin only (soles of feet)
stratum corneum
dead skin
epidermal derivative - hair purposes
- body hair: heat retention
- scalp hair: heat retention
- pubic hair: sexual maturity
- guard hairs: guard openings (eyelashes)
- eyebrows: nonverbal communication/facial expressions
epidermal derivatives - nails
almost pure keratin; for protection
Dermis functions
- protection (collagen)
- thermoregulation
- blood supply
- sensation
dermis proteins
- collagen
- elastic fibers
- reticular fibers
dermis cells
fibroblasts
dermal papillae
finger prints
dermis layers
- papillary layer: top layer
- reticular layer: most of the dermis
hypodermis functions
- protection
- energy storage
- thermoregulation
skin pigmentation
- melanin: brown protein produced by melanocytes
- hemoglobin: found in red blood cells; blood is found in the dermis; related to blood flow (how the body regulated body temp and emotion aka blushing)
- carotene: fat soluble; from red, yellow, or orange fruit or veggies
cutaneous glands
- sweat glands:
-> apocrine: activated by sex hormones a d found in pubic region and arm pits
-> merocrine: produce sweat - body temp regulation - sebaceous glands: hair follicles - oil, keeps hair healthy & shiny; depletes with age
- ceruminous glands: ear wax - no function
- mammary glands: sensitive to prolactin - produces breast milk
basal cell carcinoma
- most common
- epidermis
- keratinocytes in stratum basale
- spreads last amount
squamous cell carcinoma
- same as basal cell
- less common
- upper layers of skin
- worse prognosis
malignant melanoma
- melanocytes
- least common
- poorest prognosis
- starts as mole, usually then changes
- increases risk with UV exposure
birthmark
from blood vessel formation in dermis
vitiligo
autoimmune disease attacking melanocytes
moles vs freckles
both from melanocyte activity but moles are genetic and from birth, freckles are due to UV exposure
composition of bone
- organic components
- calcium 39%*
- potassium 0.2%
- sodium 0.7%
- magnesium 0.5%
- carbonate 9.8%
- phosphate 17%
- inorganic components 67% (or 2/3)*
long bone
- levers
- lot of motion, only 1 plane
- humerus of arm
short bones
- limited range of motion
- many planes of movement
- carpails of wrist
flat bone
- muscle attachment (ribs)
- protection (skull)
irregular bone
- everything else
- different shapes and functions
axial
skull, ribs, vertebrae, hips, protects muscle attachments
osteoclasts
- decreases bone*
- PTH*
- erode existing matrix
- higher blood Ca2+*
- come from red bone marrow
- digest collagen and release Ca2+ at acidic pH
osteoblasts
- builds bone*
- calcitonin (thyroid)*
- lower blood Ca2+*
- produces collagen
- produces Ca2+ at basic pH
removing the thyroid requires what
calcitonin supplements
osteocyte
monitor tension (activity of osteoblasts)
carbonic anhydrase
- CO2 + H2O –> H2CO3
- activated by calcitonin* (osteoblasts) and inactivated by PTH (osteoclasts)
- PTH gets activated first, calcitonin second with carbonic anhydrase activated last
bone remodeling
changes the thickness of the bone because of tension
look over the image of basic multicellular unit on page 10 of bone tissue
OK!
matrix
inorganic (minerals in bone)
- hydroxyapatite (what most Ca2+ turns into)
- function: resist compression (makes bone hard)*
- calcium carbonate (buffer if blood pH is off)*
- other like heavy metals
organic (proteins)
- collagen
- function: resists stretching
compact bone
gives bone strength
- osteon
spongy bone
- less strength
- decreases weight of bone
- space for red bone marrow
ossification
formation of bone
intramembranous ossification
forms first (skull bone)
endochondral ossification
- happens second
- forms bone from hyaline cartilage
interstitial growth
makes bones longer
appositional growth
makes bones wider
calcium homeostasis
calcitriol: (vitamin D - skina nd UV radionation produce vitamin d and raise Ca2+)
- increase calcium and phosphate absorption
- decrease urinary loss of calcium and phosphate
calcitonin ( activation osteoblast; lowers blood Ca2+)
- decreases osteoblast activity
parathyroid hormone (PTH; activate osteoclast and raise blood Ca2+)
IGF-1
- increase osteoblast number and activity
hypocalcemia
low blood Ca2+ levels
hypercalcemia
high blood Ca2+ levels
axial skeleton
function: protection (CNS, organs of ventral body cavity), attachment (muscles, appendicular skeleton), respiratory movements
skull (axial)
- support (facial structures; irregular bones)
- protection of the brain*; flat bones
vertebral column (irregular bones) functions
- supports skull
- protects spinal cord
- attachment of ribs and torso muscles
thoracic cage
- respiration of ribs (flat bones)
- support/attachment (upper limb -> pectoral girdle; torso muscles)
- protection of heart and lungs (chest no abdomen)
pectoral girdle
ball-and-socket joint (large range of motion)
appendicular skeleton
- upper limbs (grasping/manipulating objects; pectoral girdle)
- lower limbs (locomotion; pelvic girdle)
pelvic girdle
ball-and-socket joint (limited range of motion)
joint
anywhere when 2 bones meet
joint classification - structural
fibrous (connected by protein fibers)
- fibrous connective tissues (length of fibers is directly proportional to the range of movement
- strongest joint
cartilaginous
- hyaline cartilage
- fibrocartilage
synovial
- joint capsule
- weakest joint with largest movement
fibrous joint
suture
- no movement
- found in skull
syndesmosis
- formed by connection 2 long bones together (forearm,leg)
- slight movement
gomphosis
- joint between teeth and jaw
- no movement
cartilaginous joint
epiphyseal plate
- made of hyaline cartilage
symphysis
- fibrocartilage
synovial joint
has a space filled with synovial fluid, giving a great range of motion
joint classification - functional
synarthrosis
- immobile (no movement)
amphiarthrosis
- limited mobility (some movement)
diarthrosis
- freely mobile (lots of range of motion)
tendonitis
issue with tendon
bursitis
inflammation of bursa, can be treated with rest
arthritis
damage/destruction of cartilage
gene
dna
transcription
dna copied to rna
translation
when rna is used to produce protein
protein synthesis
process of cells making proteins
gastrulation
2 weeks post fertilization; formation of 3 embryonic tissues - ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
what order do the embryonic tissues form (and location)
endoderm (lining of inside of organs), mesoderm (muscles and connective tissue), ectoderm (epidermis and similar structures)
epithelial tissues (comp and cont w/ connective)
-charactersitics: cellularity (mitosis - sometimes leads to carcinoma; tight junctions), basement membrane (polarity), poor blood supply, from ecto or endoderm
- functions: protection & regulate entry and exit of materials into and out of blood
- classification: number of cells, shape of cells of outermost layer
simple vs stratified epithelium
simple has one layer of tissue stratified has many
connective tissue (comp and cont w/ epithelial)
- characteristics: cells separated by matrix (proteins, ground substances), derived from mesoderm, low rates of mitosis (less risk of cancer - sarcoma), cells lack polarity, cells less mobile, excellent blood supply (provide blood/nourishment to epithelial tissue), located below epithelial tissue
- functions: connection, storage, transport, support/protection, immunity
- cells: fibroblasts
- fibroblasts create protein fibers: collagen (resist stretching usually in one direction), reticular fibers (storage), elastic fiber (made to stretch and return to original shape)
- ground substance:
