Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
4 Models of Memory: Information Processing Approach
A
Memory processes like a computer storing files; encoding information, storing it, retrieving it (during retrieval info can be added to memory)
2
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4 Models of Memory: Parallel Distributed Processing Model
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Memory is distributed across regions of the brain; wide network of interconnected neurons
3
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4 Models of Memory: Levels of Processing Approach
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strength of memory depends on the degree and depth of processing that occurs (ex. active recall study method; deep processing)
4
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4 Models of Memory: Stage Model
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Sensory input-> sensory memory (+attention)-> STM (30 seconds if unrehersed or it goes away)
–encoding-> LTM
5
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Working Memeory
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memories/ information you can hold in your mind for brief time while working with it
6
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What role does attention play in memory processing?
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only senesory memeories we pay attention to go to STM; If held in STM long enough and with enough attention -> encoded in a way which we can retrieve it
7
Q
2 Types of sensory memory
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iconic and echoic memory
8
Q
iconic memory
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transduced/ encoded visual snap shot that lasts less than 1 second.
9
Q
echoic memory
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brain registers and temporarily stores a perfect version of the sounds around you until it’s processed; a few seconds
10
Q
Short Term Memory
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-requires attention
-limited capacity; about 7 plus or minus 2 things stored at a time for around 30 seconds
11
Q
Primacy effect
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remember first pieces of information in given information set
12
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Chunking
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a process by which small individual pieces of a set of information are bound together to create a meaningful whole; increases STM capacity
13
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Recency effect
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remember last pieces of information in given information set
14
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Implicit memory
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memory that does not require conscious recall (procedural memory)
15
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Explicit Memory
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memory that requires conscious recall
16
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2 types of explicit memory
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semantic and episodic memory
17
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Semantic memory
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facts and general knowlegde
18
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Episodic memory
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memories regarding personally experienced events
19
Q
recall
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intentionally bringing explicit memory/ info to awareness
*deeper/ stronger explicit memory
20
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recognition
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encoding an input and meaning to a stored representation; feeling of familiarity when something previously experienced is again encountered
21
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encoding
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transforming perception into memories
22
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elaborative encoding
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relating new information to information already in memory
23
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visual imagery encoding
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stringing info by means of creating a mental picture of it
24
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organizational encoding
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process of categorization of info according to relationships
ex. servers remember who ordered what at a table
25
semantic network
a representation of memory that describes the organization of declarative facts and knowledge in the mind; idea connections
-ex concept map
26
what role does sleep play in memory consolidation?
it plays an active role:
-increased hippocampal activity
-increased interaction between hippocampus and frontal lobe
27
Hippocampus role in memeory
critical as an index for LTM
28
HM Case study
-hippocampusremoved to prevent seizures
-has STM for 30 seconds (receives but does not encode) and procedural memories but no LTM
29
EP Case Study
-viral damage to hippocampus and tissues around
-LTM VERY intact (can remember how to navigate his childhood neighborhood), implicit memory and working memory BUT no STM (resets every few mins)
-Hippocampus role not where LTM stored
30
Clive Wearing Case Study
-musician who had viral damage to right and left temporal lobe and one side of his frontal lobe
-only sees and perceives the moment then resets
-like he is waking up for the first time all the time
-musical skills still intact
31
Anterograde Amnesia
inability to transfer info from STM to LTM ; can't form new memories
-ex. Alzheimer's and Dementia
32
Retrograde Amnesia
inability to retrieve info from before a certain time
33
Consolidation
process by which memories become more stable
34
Reconsolidation
memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled (can add to them or misremember) requiring them to be reconsolidated again
35
Alzheimer's Disease
-decrease in explicit/ declarative memory
-LTM initially good but then starts to decline
-fail to recall facts, information and personal life experiences
-confusion; ex think their adult child is a baby again
-Acetylcholine neurotransmitter
36
How are neurons impacted by memeory/ role in memoery formation?
repeated synapse stimulation by memory activation causes dendrites to grow and form new neural connections (knowledge) memory strengthens synaptic connection between neurons
37
NMDA Receptor
receptor site on hippocampus that influences flow of info between neurons by controlling initiation of long term potential
38
Long Term Potential (LTP)
communication across synapse between neurons strengthens connection and makes communication easier (involves glutamate)
39
Encoding Specificity Principle
way in which info is encoded (strength of associations) impacts how easily retvial of that info is
40
State Dependent retrieval
info better recalled when in the same state as one was when it was encoded/ retrieved (ex substances used or emotional state)
41
Alcohol Myopia and memory
Alcohol causes
-cognitive nearsightedness (not everything in environment perceived)
-decrease in reasoning and concentration
-failure to process and store environmental cues
42
False memory
gain a new memory based on inputs from others and from environment
-RLS: eyewitness testimonies; Robert Cotton false SA charge + DNA test (unreliable)
43
repressed memory
traumatic events lead to failure to encode details/ encoding the memory so it is not easily retrieved
44
Transience
forgetting what occurs with the passage of time
45
Retroactive interference
situations in which information learned later impacts memory of old info
46
proactive interference
situations in which old info impacts memory processing of new information
47
Absentmindedness
lapse in attention that causes memory failure
48
False Recognition
feeling of familiarity about something you have never encountered (ex. false deja vu)
49
Blocking
failure to retrieve info from memory when trying to recall ("tip of the tongue")
50
Memory Misattribution
assigning recollection or idea to wrong source (ex. Oklahoma city bombing eyewitness testimony)
51
3 types of Biases
-consistency bias: reconstruct past to ft present
-change bias: exaggerate difference of thoughts and feelings over time
-egocentric bias: exaggerate difference between then and now to make ourselves look good/ feel better
52
Persistence
intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget (often emotionally inducing events; trauma)
53
Flashbulb memory
detailed recollection of when and where we heard about or experienced an emotionally stimulating event (ex. 9/11)
54
What parts of brain invilved with emotinal memeory
amygdala works with hippocampus to facilitate stronger connections; without amygdala role in memory all events would be remember to the same degree
55
Impact of Adderall/ Norepinephrine levels on Soldiers and PTSD
Increased Norepinephrine levels lead to increased alertness so traumatic events consolidated and formed stronger-> higher levels of PTSD
56
PTSD
unwanted intrusive memories that appear to be happening "here and now"
57
Learning
-intellectual process of acquiring explicit information
-experiences shape/change or behavior
-retrieval response process
-can happen outside of conscious awareness
58
Pavlov Dog Experiment
UR: dog salivating at food
Natural Stimulus: food
CS: bell
CR: dog salivates at bell bc of association with food
59
Classical Conditioning
when neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus with a naturally occurring response (US) to produce conditioned response (CS)
60
Acquisition Phase
conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus presented; learning process
61
Extinction
gradual elimination of learned response when US is no longer present
62
Spontaneous Recovery
tendency of learned behavior to recover from extinction after rest period because not erased from memory/ learning
63
Generlization
CR is observed even though CS is slightly different (ex. slightly different sound as CS)
64
How is PTSD a learning process?
pairing traumatic experiences/ memories with previously neural environmental cues (ex. smells, sounds, places, etc.)
65
Discrimination
distinguish between slightly different CR; CR is not observed even though CS is slightly different
66
Classical Conditioning: Drug Overdose
-new environment/ situation changes tolerance
-saline inject cause temporary relief bc of injection classical conditioning
67
Classical Conditioning: Advertising
pair what is being advertised with certain images or sounds to drive association either pos or neg
-ex. political campaign commercials, old cigarette ads, corona relax on beach ads, etc
68
Classical Conditioning: Anticipatory Nausea
ex. Chemotherapy treatment -> seeing hospital or surroundings lead to nausea
69
John Watson: Little Albert Study
US: loud noise
UR: crying/ fearful response
CS: white rat
Result: CS+ US caused fearful crying when he saw white rat or anything that resembled one
70
Avoidance Learning
individual learns a response to get away from conditioned stimulus; pos and neg reinforcement response
71
Phobias
classifies under anxiety disorders; panic or great anxiety surrounding certain thing
72
Agaraphobia
fear of having panic attacks; can lead to people not going out in fear of having panic attacks certain places
73
Systematic Desensitization (SD)
treatment for phobias; bringing classical conditioning to the realm of cognitive process
74
Exposure therapy
desensitization to fears
-VR example and Snake example from videos
75
Flooding
overexposure of fear; ineffective because person never reaches relaxed state
-ex. snakes, dark and heights treatment (floating dark box with snakes)
76
Counter Conditioning
undo/ change perception of stimuli slowly and in a state of relaxation
77
Operant Conditioning/ Skinner's Philosophy
consequences of behaviors determine probability that behavior will occur again; reinforcement and schedules of reinforcement
78
What is positive and negative reinforcement
increases behavior
pos: giving positive stimuli (reward)
neg: taking away negative stimuli (ex.anxiety)
79
What is positive and negative punishment
decreases behavior
pos: giving negative stimuli (ex. hitting or fining)
neg: taking away positive stimuli (ex. grounding/ taking phone or keys away)
80
positive and negative meaning in terms of reinforcement
positive: add something
negative: take something away
81
Alcohol Reinforcement ex
positive reinforcement: drink as a reward after a long day
negative reinforcement: angry/ bad mood and have a drink to cope
82
non effective punishment ex.
-class clown: want attention so sending to principal's office is reinforcement
-Speeding tix: speed and not get caught more often then speeding and getting caught
-Kid in the candy store; whining and getting candy
kid: positive reinforcement for whining
parent: negative reinforcement for giving in
83
shaping
rewarding of gradual approximations to the desired behavior (ex training a dog)
84
Fixed Ratio Schedule of reinforcement
-reward given after completing something a set number of times
-learned fast but unlearned fast after reward removed
-ex. potty chart
85
Variable Ratio Schedule of reinforcement
-unpredicted/ changing number of responses until reward
-learned fast and unlearned slow
-ex. training a dog to sit, gambling
86
Fixed Interval Schedule of reinforcement
-reinforced after a set time
-learned slow and unlearned fast after reward removed
-ex paycheck
87
Variable Interval Schedule of reinforcement
-reinforced after a varying set of times
-learned slow but also unlearned slow
-ex. pop quiz
88
Overjustification Effect
external reward changes likelihood of engaging in behavior by changing meaning; reward provides unneeded justification/ reward for behavior
-ex. getting paid for charity work you volunteered for
89
Social Learning Theory
theory focusing on the importance of observing and modeling behaviors, attitudes and emotion; observation and learning
90
Bandura research focus and experiment
-Focused on social learning of aggression;
-Bobo doll experiment: children observing aggression as well as being rewarded or punished -> impacts on behavior
91
Biological Bases of Learning: Reward
activation of dopamine neurons in nucleus accumbens; dopamine pleasure center in the limbic system
92
What activates dopamine reward system?
cocaine, amphetamines, money, good grades; anything that installs pleasure -> cause addiction
-dopamine implicated in the intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS); associated with drug abuse problems
93
Treatment for drug abuse
take drug that interferes with dopamine so physically cannot get high; classical conditioning process
94
Nature vs Nurture
Nature: humans are genetically predetermined
Nurture: humans born as a blank slate; environment influences development
Reality: both genetics and environment
95
Critical Periods
periods where certain experiences must occur for normal development
ex. babies with untreated cataracts cannot see when treated later
ex. language and grammar development
96
Sensitive Perids
not impossible if learned outside of this period but much easier to learn when young and brain still developing
ex. language (bilingualism)
97
Piaget reaserch
cognitive development
98
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development:Sensorimotor
- birth-2
-develop schemas through sense/motor
-object permanence (cant see=does not exist; mirror example)
99
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development:nPreopperational
-2-6
-language development
-think symbolically (word formation and association)
-egocentric view (everyone sees what I see)
-operation/ complex thought (brothers brother question ex)
*Theory of the mind
100
Theory of the Mind
people don't know what goes on in each others mind; developmentally lead to lying and manipulation
101
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development: Concrete Operational
-6-11
-can perform operations but very concrete
-no metaphorical or abstract interpretation
102
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development: Formal Operation
-11+
-can think hypothetically and abstractly
Criticism: brain develops into 20's; does not stop at 11
103
Cognitive Development
understanding how the physical world works and how the mind represents it
104
Schemas
cognitive structures consisting of organized ideas; pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them
105
Assimilation
absorb new info into schema
106
Accomodation
adjust schemas based on new info input
107
Kohlberg Moral Reasoning: Preconventional Stage
-birth-adolescence
-what is wrong based on consequences
-punishment and obedience
ex. video of kids saying they would do what their mom said (go straight to party) rather then helping other kid
108
Kohlberg Moral Reasoning: Conventional Stage
-adolescents/ young adult
-rules must be followed
-law and order
-morality confined by following social rules
109
Kohlberg Moral Reasoning: Post Conventional Stage
-adulthood
-social contract vs universal ethics dilemma
-general principles reflect core values
110
Moral Reasoning
Morality shaped by environment, parents/ superiors, situation and nature
111
At what age to children start moral development
7-8 years old
112
Eriksons 8 stages of development: childhood
-trust vs mistrust (0-1)
-autonomy vs shame/doubt and initiative vs guilt; functioning independently (1-6)
-industry vs inferiority; success and accomplishment (6-12)
-Identity vs role confusion (12-20)
113
Eriksons 8 stages of development: adulthood
-Intimacy vs Isolation (20-30)
-did i do something good with my life? (30-65)
-reflection on life (65+)
114
Socio-emotional selectivity theory
select emotional focus based on ones stage in life
-older adults (reflecting retirement stage) have a more positive, present focus while young adults have a more negative, future perspective
115
Lifespan based on relationship status: Men v. Woman
Married AND widowed woman have longest lifespan while ONLY married men reflect this lifespan; need for companionship
116
Attachment Definition
strong emotional bond with others that continues over time
117
Imprinting definition
a behavioral trait that altricial animals experience hours after being born where they develop an extremely close bond with the animals it first meets, usually their parents
-ex. Lorenz and geese study
118
What did harlow's research with monkeys find?
contact comfort important for forming attachment, even more than food (cloth mother vs wire mother with milk) debunking previous ideas; food main contributor for attachment
119
What do attachment bonds include (2 factors)
- safe based when distressed
- safe base that's there for when exploring new environments
120
Levels of Attachment
-secure attachment: distressed when caregiver leaves but consoled easily
-avoidant attachment: not as distressed when caregiver leaves (not as attached)
-anxious attachment: very anxious and upset; inconsolable upon return of caregiver
121
The Strange Situation Test
experiment that puts kids in a new situation, has caregiver leave and return, testing response
ex. Baby Lisa and Lisbet video (secure attachment)
122
Deprivation of Attachment
-abuse, neglect
ex. orphanages; if not adopted/fostered before age 2 -> poor attachment
123
Parenting Styles
-Permissive: indifferent towards child and their feelings -> leads them to not care how people feel
-Authoritarian: strict and rigid, often comes with physical discipline
-Authoritative: healthy mix, adapting parenting to needs of child
124
Day Care Outcomes
-higher thinking/ language skills
-higher aggression (more social interaction ex. kid stealing toy)
-more stress hormone (cortisol)
Overall good (no effect on attachment) of high quality daycare (enough attention and resources)
125
Aspects of Divorce that impact child development
-parental conflicts
-abuse being witnessed
-absence of one parent post divorce
-poverty post divorce
126
Child Temperaments impact on behaviors later in life
"easy children"
-lower stress reactivity
-form attachment easier
-less likely to get overwhelmed by stimuli; ex spinning mobil
-predicts extroverted behavior
"difficult children"
-higher stress reactivity
-physically and emotionally overwhelmed (motor movement and crying) by over stimulation
-predicts introverted behavior
127
Pale Grey Fabric Metaphor
-Biological impact on behavior: white
-Environmental/ experience impact on behavior: black threats
Overall human behavior perfect blend
128
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
TOP: Self actualization; inner fulfillment
Esteem; self worth, accomplishment, confidence
Social; fam, friends, belonging
Security; safety, assets, employment
BOTTOM/BASIC NEEDS: Physiological; food, water, shelter, warmth
129
Motivation
the wants or needs that direct behavior towards a goal
130
Intrinsic motivation
motivation from an internal source; personal satisfaction
131
Extrinsic motivation
external source of motivation (ex. money)
132
Arousal Theory of Motivation
Normal distribution curve
-low arousal/ underaroused= boredom
-high arousal/over aroused= high anxiety
-peak of graph optimal level of arousal to be motivated
133
Emotion
complex reactions that engage our bodies AND our minds
134
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
face muscles react to emotional state
ex. smile -> elevated mood state
135
Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Botox
paralyzed facial muscles -> loss of expressive capacity influences emotional experience and intensity
136
Emotional Theories: James-Lange Theory
physiological response (activation of ANS/ fight or flight) causes emotion to arise
137
Emotional Theories:Cannon-Bond Theory
emotion (fear) and physiological response happen simultaneously
138
Emotional Theories: Schachter-Singer Theory
cognitive appraisal (how you think about what you are feeling) influences the emotions you feel
139
Emotional Theories: Lazarus
emotions are determined by cognitive appraisal (like Schachter-Singer) HOWEVER cognitive appraisal is immediate and unconscious
140
How can emotions be misattributed/ misinterpreted by physiological sensations?
ex. Love/attraction and fear video; heart beat increase
141
What parts of the brain are involved in emotion processing?
-thalamus: sensory info relay center
-hypothalamus: activation of sympathetic NS (physiological response)
-amygdala: processing emotional information
-hippocampus: emotional experience + cognition
142
6 Universal emotional expressions
happy, sad, angry, disgust, fear, surprise
143
Why are emotional expressions biologically based?
evidence:
-all different cultures exhibited and recognize these expressions (new Guinea study)
-blind and deaf children still exhibit these expressions (ex. smile when happy) even though not seeing
144
Display Rules (communication through face)
how one should or should not display emotions in certain situations
**varies culturally; study: american and japanese teens watching gruesome video -> americans showed full expression when being observed while japanese did not (cultural norms)
145
Lateralization of emotional system
-right hemisphere: dominant negative effect; deficiency is stress response system -> slower to recover from emotional challenge
-left hemisphere: dominant positive effect; bounces back from emotional challenge quicker
146
Emotional Intelligence
the ability to manage both your own emotions and understand the emotions of people around you; empathy, social and self awareness, etc
147
Delayed gratification
self control of resisting an impulse to take an immediately available reward in the hope of obtaining a more-valued reward in the future
**develops around the age of 5-6
Studies: marshmallow test, choc piece vs whole bar test
