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Biodiversity > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Protists

A

Eukaryotes that are not fungi, plants or animals

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2
Q

Four major clades of eukaryotes

A

Excavata
“SAR”
Archaeplastida
Unikonta

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3
Q

Photoautotroph

A

Protists that carry out photosynthesis. A producer

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4
Q

Chemoheterotroph

A

A protist that derives its energy from chemicals and needs to consume other organisms in order to live. A consumer

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5
Q

One example of a photoautotroph

A

Algae

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6
Q

One example of a chemoheterotroph

A

Protozoan

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7
Q

Archaeplastida subclade

A

Red and green algae

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8
Q

Stramenopiles clade

A

Brown algae and diatoms

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9
Q

Prokaryote meaning

A

Pro = before
Kary = nucleus

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10
Q

Two domains of prokaryotic cells

A

Bacteria
Archaea

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11
Q

How many years of evolution does the tree of life show?

A

3.6 billion years of evolution

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12
Q

2 social types of prokaryotic cells

A

Unicellular
Colonial

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13
Q

Unicellular

A

Organism consisting of a single cell

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14
Q

Colonial

A

Groups of physically connected individuals with each individual carrying out all the necessary functions for life. They divide without fully separating.

They are not multicellular

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15
Q

Coccus/cocci

A

Round

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16
Q

Basillus/bacilli

A

Rod-shaped

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17
Q

Strepto

A

Chain

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18
Q

Diplo

A

Pair

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19
Q

Spirochete/spirillum/spirilli

A

Spiral

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20
Q

Staphylo

A

Bunch/cluster

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21
Q

Plasma membrane in prokaryotes

A

Separation between the cell from the surrounding environment where the cell interior environment is very different from exterior environments.

Cells expend a lot of energy to maintain this chemical balance

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22
Q

Purpose of a cell wall

A

Structural supports
Additional filtering
Preventing over expansion

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23
Q

Cell wall types in bacteria

A

Gram +
Gram -

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24
Q

Gram-positive bacteria characteristics

A

One lipid layer (Membrane)
Thick peptidoglycan (wall)
Affects antibiotic function

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25
Q

Gram-negative bacteria characteristics

A

Two lipid layers (membranes)
Thin peptidoglycan (wall)
Affects antibiotic function

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26
Q

Gram stain procedure

A

Identifies bacterial cell wall type

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27
Q

Capsule or slime layer

A

Outside of the cell wall
Adheres to surface
Prevents dehydration
Protects from sterilization
The cause of biofilms

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28
Q

Endospore

A

The protected resting stage of bacteria where they copy chromosomes and have many protective layers. They remove water, shut down metabolism and outer cell lyses.

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29
Q

Bacteria in endospor can survive what?

A

Without nutrients
UV radiation
Desiccation
Extreme heat
Freezing
Chemical disinfectant

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30
Q

Taxis

A

Movements or orientation toward or away from a stimulus

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31
Q

Prokaryotes typically exhibit this form of taxis

A

Chemotaxis

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32
Q

Flagella

A

A hairlike appendage that protrudes from certain cells that enables movement and chemotaxis

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33
Q

Flagella evolution

A

Flagella evolved through analogous means

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34
Q

Prokaryote internal structure regarding dna

A

DNA in nucleoid region
Chromosome one single circular strand which contains the genes for growth metabolism and cell structure
DNA is also found in plasmids

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35
Q

Plasmids

A

Tiny rings of DNA with 5 to 100 genes not required for survival
Taking up from fragments of DNA from other species
Plasmids have their own jeans for replication

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36
Q

Potential plasmid qualities

A

Antibiotic resistance
Poison resistance
Toxin production
Digestion of particular substance
Virulence

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37
Q

Binary fission

A

Asexual reproduction by a cell splitting in two

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38
Q

Genetic recombination

A

Alleles being brought together in new combinations

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39
Q

Genetic recombination

A

Happens in eukaryotes as part of sexual reproduction

Some pieces of chromosomes swapped when gametes (eggs, sperm) are made

Result in different combination of alleles in offspring than in parents

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40
Q

Fertilization

A

Gamete fusion within same species
Both result in different combination of alleles in offspring than in parents

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41
Q

Horizontal gene transfer

A

Alleles transferred between existing individuals (Genetic recombination - prokaryotes resulting in different combination of alleles in an existing individual)

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42
Q

Obligate aerobes

A

Metabolic diversity- type of respiration

O2

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43
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A

Can switch between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Don’t require O2, not killed by O2

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44
Q

Obligate anaerobes

A

Killed by atmospheric concentrations of O2 (~20%)

Methanogens

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45
Q

Methanogens

A

Strict anaerobes
Important anaerobic decomposers
Facilitate digestion
Produce methane as a by-product

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46
Q

Ecological role

A

The major ways in which the species interacts with other species and affects its ecosystem

Many ecological roles are closely related to the metabolism type of the organism

There are also other ecological roles like methanogen and Nitrogen-fixer

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47
Q

Cyanobacteria today

A

Producers
Some are also important Nitrogen-fixers - convert atmospheric N2 into a form of Nitrogen (like nitrates) that is usable by plants

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48
Q

The majority of bacteria are what ecological role?

A

Decomposers

They are absolutely essential for nutrient cycling

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49
Q

Extremophiles and examples

A

Adaptations for living under extreme environmental conditions

Archeans – up to 20% of global biomass
Methanogens
Important part of plankton communities

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50
Q

Halophiles

A

Extreme salinity

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51
Q

Bacterial Nitrogen fixers and what they do

A

Convert atmospheric N2 gas into a form of N that is usable by plants (like nitrates or nitrites)
Cyanobacteria
Root nodule Rhizobia

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52
Q

What do we need Nitrogen for?

A

Major component of proteins and nucleic acids

Amino acids!

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53
Q

Root nodules containing Rhizobia

A

Bacteria as N-fixers

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54
Q

Protists

A

Eukaryotes that aren’t fungi, plants, or animals

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55
Q

What is an algae?

A

Any photosynthetic protist

Metabolic mode = Photoautotroph
Ecological role = Producer

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56
Q

What determines which wavelengths of light an algae can absorb?

A

Photosynthetic pigments that have a specific wavelength they can absorb and the light they can’t is reflected in their color

Chloroplasts

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57
Q

Primary endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria resulted in what?

A

First photosynthetic eukaryotes

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58
Q

What is the evolutionary origin of chloroplasts?

A

A primitive cyanobacteria that was engulfed by non-photosynthetic cells

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59
Q

What clade are the red and green algae in?

A

Archaeplastida

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60
Q

What are green algea

A

Protists that come in different cellular organizations

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61
Q

What are red algae

A

Most multi-cellular protists

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62
Q

Where are red algae found? What are commercial uses of red algae? What is their ecological importance?

A

Found in warm marine waters

Source of agar – growth medium
Carrageenan – natural food additive for thickening
Nori

Lay down calcium carbonate
Reef-builders
Food for marine life

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63
Q

Where are green algae found? What is their ecological importance?

A

Fresh water

Important habitat and primary producers in aquatic food webs

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64
Q

Secondary Endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria

A

Something engulfed a red or green algae and the engulfed algae evolved into new plastids, like chlorophasts

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65
Q

What subclade are diatoms and brown algae in?

A

Stramenopiles which are photosynthetic
Secondary endosymbiosis of red alga

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66
Q

What kind of wall/shell do diatoms have?

A

Glass-like wall for protection with pores to exchange materials with environment

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67
Q

Diatoms

A

Unicellular – pennate or centric protists with glass-like walls

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68
Q

What is the ecological importance of diatoms?

A

1/5 of O2 production
Important in aquatic food webs

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69
Q

What is the role of diatoms in the global carbon cycle?

A

Carbon fixers

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70
Q

Where are brown algae found? What are important ecological roles of brown algae?

A

Cold, marine waters

Important marine habitat

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71
Q

What is the origin of the plastids in brown algae and diatoms?

A

Evolved from engulfed red algae

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72
Q

What is a protozoan?

A

Chemoheterotrophic protist
Metabolic mode = Chemoheterotroph
Ecological role = Consumer
(some predators, some pathogens)

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73
Q

What is a mixotroph?

A

They are both photoautotroph and chemoheterotroph

74
Q

How do Plasmodium and Trypanosoma hide from host immune systems?

A

They change surface proteins so as not to be identified

75
Q

What is the vectors for Plasmodium and what disease does it cause?

A

Vectored by Anopholes mosquitoes

Malaria

76
Q

What are the vectors for Trypanosoma and what diseases does it cause?

A

Human parasites
African sleeping sickness (tse tse fly)
Chagas’ disease (kissing bug)

77
Q

Why are Plasmodium life cycles considered complex?

A

Two hosts (mammal/bird and mosquito)
Sexual and asexual reproduction

78
Q

How is Giardia transmitted?

A

From untreated sewage in developing countries or contamination of natural waters

79
Q

Gardia

A

Intestinal parasite
Cattle and deer have this
Cramps, diarrhea

80
Q

Dinoflagettes and their evolution

A

A protists with two flagella

Secondary endosymbiosis of red algae
Many are mixotrophic

81
Q

Describe an example of a dinoflagellate that is ecologically harmful.

A

Blooms – toxic red tides

82
Q

Describe an example of a dinoflagellate that is ecologically important.

A

Photosynthetic symbionts of coral

83
Q

Ciliate

A

Use cilia for locomotion and feeding
Fast-moving
Most predators on bacteria or small protists

84
Q

Give an example of a ciliate. What do ciliates use their cilia for?

A

Paramecium - Movement

85
Q

What kind of nutrition do Euglena have? What does Euglena use its eyespot and light detector for?

A

Mixotroph
Eyespot = stigma
Blocks photoreceptor at base of flagella
For phototaxis to detect predators

86
Q

What kind of pseudopods do amoebozoans have?

A

Lobe-shaped pseudopods

87
Q

What is different about the cell structure of amoebas and slime molds?

A

Multiple nuclei

88
Q

What do amoebas and slime molds use pseudopods for?

A

Movement

89
Q

Xerophile

A

Dry

90
Q

Alkaphile

A

Basic

91
Q

Thermopile

A

Hot

92
Q

What are two important roles that cyanobacteria played in the evolutionary history of life?

A

A cyanobacteria was engulfed and created photosynthetic eukaryotes

A cyanobacterium was engulfed by a eukaryote and became genetically integrated as a heritable photosynthetic organelle, or plastid

93
Q

Cyanobacteria are an important group of bacteria. What are two ecological roles they play?

A

They form a component of the base of the aquatic food chain, and their photosynthetic activity aerates the habitat.

94
Q

Gram stain procedure step 1 why are all the bacteria purple?

A

A thin coat of purple stain was added to the bacteria

95
Q

Gram stain procedure step 2 why are all the bacteria purple?

A

Iodine was added to the bacteria but the stain was not removed

96
Q

Gram stain procedure step 3, why are some of the bacteria now clear?

A

The cells were decolorized with acetone or ethanol

97
Q

Gram stain procedure step 4, why are some of the bacteria now pink?

A

Those were Gram Negative bacteria colored by counter stain

98
Q

Other than evolution, what is a second way that a bacteria may acquire a new beneficial trait?

A

They can acquire them from DNA or chromosomes of other species through plasmid transfer

99
Q

Why are bacteria capable of evolving rapidly? Use the words mutation and natural selection, and generation time in your answer.

A
100
Q

List the derived traits of plants

A

separate land plants from green algae

  1. Waxy cuticle
  2. Stomata
  3. Multicellular, dependent embryos
  4. Spores produced in sporangia
  5. Apical meristems
101
Q

Explain the purpose of a cuticle

A

prevent desiccation

102
Q

Explain the purpose of stomata

A

allow CO2 and O2 exchange in air

103
Q

What is the dispersal stage of seedless plants

A

Spores

104
Q

Why do seedless plants depend on moist environments for reproduction

A

Sperm swims through water to fertilize eggs and other reproduction methods

105
Q

What is the most common example of a bryophyte

A

Moss

106
Q

Why are mosses short

A

No vascular systems

107
Q

List the derived traits of vascular plants

A

Vascular tissues called xylem and phloem
Well-developed roots and leaves

108
Q

What are two reasons that vascular tissue allowed vascular plants to grow tall

A

Transport water far from ground
Lignin in vascular tissue provides structural support

109
Q

___________________ is the vascular tissue that transports water, while __________________ transports sugars

A

Xylum and phloegm

110
Q

What are three purposes of roots

A

-anchor vascular plants
-absorb water and minerals from the soil
-store organic molecules

Roots contain vascular tissue
—Rhizoids DO NOT contain vascular tissue and are only for support

111
Q

What is the primary purpose of leaves

A

organs that increase the surface area for photosynthesis

112
Q

What is the most common example of seedless vascular plants

A

Ferns

113
Q

Gametophyte

A

the sexual phase in the life cycle of plants that contains one set of chromosomes

114
Q

Haploid

A

something that contains one set of chromosomes

115
Q

Diploid

A

something that contains two sets of chromosomes

116
Q

Sporangia

A

multicellular organs in sporophyte where spores are produced

117
Q

Sporophyte

A

Diploid plants

118
Q

Spores

A

the dispersal stage in seedless plants

119
Q

Meristems

A

a region of plant tissue, found chiefly at the growing tips of roots and shoots and in the cambium, consisting of actively dividing cells forming new tissue

continual growth apical (apex) meristems

120
Q

Grade vs Clade

A

Grade = collection of organisms that share key biological features (but not necessarily monophyletic clade)

121
Q

Bryophyte

A

the earliest lineages to diverge from the common ancestor of land plants

122
Q

Two types of bryophyte

A

mosses, liverworts

123
Q

Bryophytes have rhizoids

A

Root-like structures

For anchoring,
Not for water and mineral absorption
No vascular tissue

124
Q

What part of the bryophyte’s structure makes the eggs and sperm

A

the green part that is photosynthetic

125
Q

What part of moss is the sporangia for making spores for dispersal

A

The stalk-like structures

126
Q

Bryophytes habitats

A

must live in moist habitats

127
Q

Liverworts

A

~ 9,000 species
Tiny 2-20 mm wide

Has little gemmae cups in the ‘leaves’ that help reproduction

128
Q

Liverworts reproduction

A

Asexually through Fragmentation and gemmae cups

129
Q

Mosses traits

A

~ 15,000 species
Asexual reproduction via fragmentation

130
Q

Moss structure

A

a sporangium on a stalk

Photosynthetic makes eggs, sperm

131
Q

Differences between mosses and liverwort

A

Mosses found in more habitats than liverworts
More tolerant of desiccation (can rehydrate)
Phenols absorb UV

132
Q

Peat

A

Sphagnum moss in wetlands
Decomposition very slow
Submerged, low temp, low O2, acidic
Accounts for ¼ of all carbon stored in soils, land plants

133
Q

Peat facts

A

Peat covers 3% of earth’s surface – store 25% of earth’s soil/plant carbon
accumulates faster than decomposes
1.5-2.3 m thick

134
Q

Peat climate change issues

A

Global warming – peat bogs dry, air warms
increases decomposition, releasing CO2

135
Q

Charophytes

A

Freshwater algae

136
Q

Plants evolved from what era

A

Paleozoic era from green algae after Cambrian explosion

137
Q

Fossil evidence indicates that plants were on land at least 470 million years ago

A

Fossilized spores

Fossilized sporophyte tissue

138
Q

Reproductive stages of multicellular, dependent embryos in plants

A

Egg retained in adult plant
Sperm swim to egg
Sperm fertilizes egg inside female
Diploid zygote develops into multicellular diploid embryo within tissues of female gametophyte
—Protection
—Nutrients transferred from parent to embryo

139
Q

Meristems

A

a region of plant tissue, found chiefly at the growing tips of roots and shoots

cells from the apical meristems differentiate into various tissues

140
Q

The closest relatives of the land plants

A

Green algae

141
Q

Bryophyte

A

a group of land plants, sometimes treated as a taxonomic division, that contains three groups of non-vascular land plants: the liverworts, hornworts and mosses

142
Q

Rhizoids

A

found in bryophytes

root-like structures for anchoring,
—Not for water and mineral absorption
—No vascular tissue

143
Q

Reproductive stages of bryophytes

A
  1. Spore dispersal
  2. The spores grow into male and female gametophytes (n)
  3. Sperm and eggs are released (n)
  4. Sperm swims through water to fertilize an egg to create a zygote (2n)
  5. An embryo forms (2n)
  6. Grows into a sporophyte (2n) that mature
144
Q

Fragmentation

A

Small pieces of moss “stems” or “leaves” are often scattered by the wind, water or animals. If a moss fragment reaches a suitable environment, it can establish a new plant.

144
Q

Multicellular, dependent embryos

Where are they found?

A

Inside of the adult plant

145
Q

Fossils of vascular plants date

A

425MYA

145
Q

Bryophytes prominent vegetation how many years ago

A

100MYA

145
Q

Lignin

A

vascular tissue that provides structural support

145
Q

Apical meristems are responsible for continuous growth. What kind of cell division happens here?

A

Mitosis

146
Q

Xylem

A

conducts most of the water and minerals
one way
no cell walls

147
Q

Phloegm

A

distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products
two way
cell walls with perforation

148
Q

What were the giant seedless vascular plants and during what era?

A

Horsetails
Devonian and Carboniferous

149
Q

What did the first forests do?

A

removed CO2 from the atmosphere, global cooling at the end of the Carboniferous period
plants of Carboniferous forests eventually became coal

150
Q

Horsetails

A

Diverse during the Carboniferous period, but are now restricted to the genus Equisetum
Sporangia clusters in cones, make spores
Live in water-logged soils

151
Q

Ferns

A

The most widespread seedless vascular plants, with more than 12,000 species
They are most diverse in the tropics but also thrive in temperate forests

152
Q

Rhizomes

A

underground stems for asexual reproduction

153
Q

How do rhizomes differ from rhizoids?

A

Rhizoids vary from rhizomes in the fact that rhizoids are root-like structures emerging from the epidermal cells of the bryophytes, while rhizomes are root-like modified and underground altered stems

154
Q

Fiddleheads

A

New fern shoots emerge from the rhizome curled up

155
Q

Sporangia in ferns

A

found in clusters called “sori” (singular “sorus”) on the underside of leaves

one sorus = many sporangia

156
Q

Fern reproduction

A
  1. A mature fern (2n) releases spores (n) from sporangium in the sorus
  2. The spore grows to release a flagellated sperm (n) and egg (n)
  3. The sperm swims to the egg to fertilize it into a zygote (2n)
  4. The zygote grows into a young gametophyte
  5. The gametophyte grows into a new sporophyte (fern)
157
Q

Seed plants first evolved in what period?

A

Carboniferous period

158
Q

What organisms were dominate in the Carboniferous period?

A

forests dominated by seedless vascular plants

amphibians dominant

159
Q

Derived traits of seed plants

A

Pollen grains make sperm
Eggs are made in ovules
Ovules become seeds

160
Q

Pollen grains

A

A single cell containing two male gametes. Once mature, the anther splits open and pollen is released.

161
Q

Ovules

A

Cells that produce egg - the part of the ovary of seed plants that contains the female germ cell and after fertilization becomes the seed

162
Q

Integument

A

a tough outer protective layer, especially that of a plant that protects the ovule

163
Q

Pollination

A

transfer of pollen (n) to part of plant containing ovule

pollen tube grows into ovule, discharges sperm

164
Q

Fertilization

A

when sperm fuses with egg

165
Q

Seed formation

A

An ovule becomes a seed after the egg is fertilized

166
Q

Seeded plant reproduction

A
  1. An unfertilized ovule releases a pollen grain (n)
  2. The pollen grain enters a pollen tube and releases sperm (n)
  3. The sperm fertilizes the egg to form a zygote (n)
  4. This grows into an embryo (2n) and the ovule is fertilized
  5. Integument becomes the seed coat
  6. Seed contains embryo & food supply in protective seed coat
167
Q

Seeds are the what stage for seed plants

A

Dispersal

168
Q

Advantages of seeds

A

Can be dispersed long distances
Can remain dormant (protective coat)
Germination triggered by optimal environmental conditions
–temp, water, O2, light/dark, fire, etc
Contain food supply for seedling growth after germination (NOT food for seed!
Seed is dormant!!!)

169
Q

Gymnosperm

A

seeds exposed on modified leaves
usually cones (aka strobili)

dominant when reptiles were dominant land vertebrates

170
Q

Four gymnosperm phyla

A

Cycadophyta
Ginkgophyta
Gnetophyta
Coniferophyta

171
Q

Cycadophyta

A

Very large cones
Separate male and female plants
Very tough, palm-like leaves
Abundant w/ dinosaurs

172
Q

Ginkgophyta

A

1 species, Ginkgo biloba
Fan-shaped leaves
Separate male and female trees

173
Q

Coniferophyta

A

Needle-like leaves or scale-like leaves
Most evergreen

Conifer and evergreen are NOT synonyms

174
Q

Adaptations of coniferous trees

A

Needle-like leaves – adapted for harsh, cold conditions
Evergreen foliage
Conical shape

175
Q

Pine (Gymnosperm) life cycle

A
  1. A mature sporophyte (2n) grows an ovulate cone and pollen cone
  2. The pollen cone releases microsporangia where pollen (male gametophytes n) is made
  3. Pollen releases sperm
  4. The ovulate cone contains ovules where eggs are made.
  5. Conifers are wind pollinated.
  6. The Microsporangium releases pollen grains (n).
  7. Pollen tube slowly forms, grows toward ovule.
  8. Sperm swims down tube to egg in ovule
    fertilization! This can take a year before fertilization!
  9. A zygote than embryo (2n) forms with a seed coat sounding it and food reserves for it.
  10. The embryo undergoes meiosis in the seed.
  11. The seed eventually grows into a sapling then mature plant (2n)
176
Q

Gnetophyta

A

Angiosperm-like features: vessel elements, double fertilization, fruit-like ovule coverings
Dioecious. Female plants have covered ovules, while male plants have pollen cones.

Biodiversity (4 decks)

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